THE WORKING MODEL OF MEMORY
SPECIFICATION:
The working memory model: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and episodic buffer. Features of the model: coding and capacity.
WORKING MEMORY PLAYS A CRUCIAL ROLE IN YOUR DAILY LIFE
"Working memory is our mental workspace, enabling us to hold and manipulate information in real time. The phonological loop acts like an audio player, storing and rehearsing sounds to help us remember a phone number or shopping list. Meanwhile, the visuospatial sketchpad, our mind’s eye, creates mental maps and visualises layouts—like navigating a dark room or picturing landmarks in our neighbourhood. Overseeing it all, the central executive allocates attention, ensuring tasks are managed efficiently. Together, these components allow us to solve problems, follow conversations, and navigate daily life, making working memory vital from childhood to old age."
THE WORKING MEMORY MODEL
A model of short-term memory by Baddeley and Hitch (1974 and updated in 2000).
For essays and examinations, it is worth noting that Baddeley and Hitch’s model did not address long-term memory (LTM) and was solely an account of how STM worked.
WHY DID WE NEED A NEW MEMORY MODEL?
As mentioned in the summary of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Theory, the contribution of the model cannot be underestimated. Memory was once thought to function as a solitary unit residing somewhere in the brain. However, the idea that memory is solely comprised of three stores proved too simplistic to explain the vast complexity of human memory. MSM’s most significant contribution was its role in inspiring the development of more sophisticated models, ultimately paving the way for a much deeper understanding of how memory works.
One such development was the Working Memory Model (WMM), proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (B&H) in 1974, which redefined the concept of short-term memory.
Baddeley and Hitch’s research into amnesiacs, including the case of KF, challenged the traditional view of Short-Term Memory (STM) as a single, unified system. KF could transfer visual information from STM to Long-Term Memory (LTM) but struggled with transferring linguistic information. This raised a crucial question: could there be separate systems for visual and linguistic STM?
In response, Baddeley and Hitch proposed that STM was not a single store but comprised multiple specialised components. Their original model included the Central Executive, the Phonological Loop, and the visuo-spatial Sketchpad. By 2001, the model was expanded to include the Episodic Buffer, bringing the total to four key components of the WMM. This revised model provided a more nuanced understanding of STM and its critical role in processing and integrating information.
A critical aspect of Baddeley and Hitch’s model is the specialisation of STM into linguistic/verbal and visual-spatial domains. This division is intuitively reasonable, considering everyday scenarios where individuals concurrently engage in tasks that require visual-spatial and linguistic processing. For example, navigating the environment while talking on the phone illustrates our capacity to process and remember information across these two modalities simultaneously. Suppose one can converse with someone new and later recall their appearance. In that case, it suggests that STM can handle multiple types of information concurrently, challenging the Multi-Store Model's (MSM) simpler view of a singular STM.
REDEFINING SHORT-TERM MEMORY: THE BIRTH OF WORKING MEMORY
At the forefront of their critique, Baddeley and Hitch challenged the traditional view of Short-Term Memory (STM) as a passive container holding 5–9 pieces of information. Instead, they argued that STM is an active processor, integral to consciousness and involved in thinking, problem-solving, calculating, and deductive reasoning. They highlighted that these processes occur in STM alongside essential functions like speaking and memorising.
To reflect this complexity, they redefined STM as "Working Memory," emphasising its role in everyday activities such as driving, writing essays, and studying for exams. While they still recognised Working Memory as having a limited capacity and duration and as encoding information acoustically and visually, the rebranding underscored that it is not a passive system but a dynamic centre of active consciousness.
This redefinition was part of a broader, more detailed theory they developed, known as the Working Memory Model, underscoring the active engagement of STM in cognitive tasks.
.*Most psychologists and academics refer to STM as working memory. STM is now only used by lay people as a term to describe working memory or to introductory psychology students new to memory theories!
QUESTIONS BASED ON THE TEXT
What is the term now used by most psychologists to describe Short-Term Memory (STM)?
What are the four components of Working Memory?
Does the Working Memory Model (WMM) address Long-Term Memory (LTM)?
What fourth component was added to the original Working Memory Model, and why?
How did the case of KF challenge the Multi-Store Model’s (MSM) explanation of Short-Term Memory (STM)?
Why did Baddeley and Hitch rebrand STM as Working Memory
IN SUMMARY
The Working Memory Model (WMM) suggests that short-term memory (STM) is not a single system but consists of four distinct components. Originally, Baddeley and Hitch’s 1974 model included only three components, but the episodic buffer was added later to address criticisms of the initial framework.
So, what is working memory? A simple way to think about it is that it represents our consciousness or STM—not as a single entity but as a system with multiple components. Baddeley and Hitch proposed that language (what we hear and say) and visuals (what we see and how we navigate time and space) are managed by two separate systems.
THE FOUR COMPONENTS OF THE WORKING MEMORY MODEL
Let’s delve deeper into these systems and learn the correct terminology
THE PHONOLOGICAL LOOP: THE “INNER VOICE” AND “INNER EAR”
The phonological loop is part of the working memory model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974). It is responsible for processing and temporarily storing verbal and auditory information, such as spoken words and sounds. It is the system that handles verbal and auditory information, such as repeating a phone number or remembering instructions.
The Phonological Loop plays a critical role in learning and communication. It explains how we hold onto sounds temporarily to understand, repeat, and respond to what we hear. Without it, tasks like learning new words, following verbal instructions, or even having conversations would be impossible.
WHY IT’S CALLED THE PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
The Phonological Loop is a part of the Working Memory Model (WMM) that deals with sound and language. The word “phono” comes from the Greek word for “sound,” which is why it’s relevant to linguistics—it helps us process and remember spoken words and other auditory information. The Phonological Loop is like the “voice in your head” and enables you to remember things by repeating them. The phonological Loop is split into two parts, reflecting the loop’s focus on how information sounds rather than its meaning or appearance. It is a loop because it involves a repetitive cycle where information is actively refreshed to prevent it from fading.
WHAT THE PHONOLOGICAL LOOP DOES
READING
The phonological loop converts written words into their sound-based equivalents, helping you recognise and process them.
Example: When reading, the loop temporarily holds the sounds of the words so you can understand the sentence.
WRITING
The loop keeps words or phrases active in memory as you write them down.
Example: When taking notes in class, your inner voice may repeat the teacher’s sentence while you write it.
LISTENING
The phonological loop holds onto spoken words or sounds long enough for you to process and understand them.
Example: During a conversation, it helps you retain what the other person said so you can respond appropriately.
TALKING
It helps you sequence and organise the words you want to say.
Example: Your inner voice rehearses the words you’re about to speak, ensuring they come out in the right order.
LEARNING NEW WORDS
The phonological loop plays a key role in language learning, helping you retain and rehearse unfamiliar words.
Example: When learning a new word, like "antelope," your inner voice repeats it to help you remember its pronunciation.
SPELLING
It retains the sounds of words, helping you sequence them correctly while spelling.
Example: When spelling “necessary,” your inner voice might break it into chunks: “nec... es... sar... y.”
FOLLOWING INSTRUCTIONS
The loop temporarily holds verbal instructions so you can act on them.
Example: If someone says, “Turn left, then take the second right,” the phonological loop keeps these directions active until you use them.
MENTAL ARITHMETIC
The phonological loop holds numbers or words in memory while you solve problems.
Example: When solving 23 + 17, your inner voice repeats the numbers while you calculate.
UNDERSTANDING CONVERSATIONS
It holds spoken words long enough for you to process their meaning and respond.
Example: During a discussion, it helps you keep track of what was said while you formulate your reply
THE TWO COMPONENTS OF THE PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
PHONOLOGICAL STORE ("INNER EAR")
This holds sounds and spoken words you hear for a short time.
The phonological store is a passive system that temporarily holds sounds you hear for 1-2 seconds. Without rehearsal, this information quickly fades.
EXAMPLES OF THE PHONOLOGICAL STORE
If someone says, “Bananas, apples, grapes,” the phonological store briefly catches the sound of the words, e.g., it keeps the sounds fresh for a few seconds. But cannot remember the words unless a person actively repeats them in the articulatory process.
ARTICULATORY CONTROL PROCESS ("INNER VOICE")
This repeats the sounds in your head to keep them active in memory.
The articulatory control process is an active system that refreshes the sounds in the phonological store by repeating them silently. This is known as subvocal rehearsal.
Without this repetition, the information would decay and disappear from memory.
EXAMPLES OF ARTICULATORY CONTROL IN REAL-LIFE
If you hear a phone number like 0786 123 4567, your inner voice repeats it:
“0786... 123... 4567...”
This keeps the number fresh until you can write it down or use it.Remembering a Shopping List: If you’re trying to recall the items you need, you might repeat them: “milk, bread, eggs…”
Learning a New Language: The Phonological Loop helps you remember unfamiliar words by replaying their sounds.
Following Instructions: When someone tells you, “Turn left, then right, then straight ahead,” you repeat it mentally to remember the sequence.
Without the phonological loop, you’d immediately forget the information you just heard.
DURATION, CAPACITY AND ENCODING OF THE PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
DURATION AND CAPACITY
The phonological loop holds sounds for about 1-2 seconds on average. However, brighter individuals or faster speakers may effectively hold information for up to 3-4 seconds.
Baddeley and Hitch focused on time, not chunks, as a measure of capacity because languages and word lengths differ. For example, Arabic digits (longer to say) reduce memory span compared to English digits.
Shorter words (like "cat, dog") fit better in the loop than longer ones (like "hippopotamus").
ENCODING
The phonological loop processes information acoustically, relying on sound, not meaning or visual appearance. For example, when reading, words are converted into their sound forms so they can be stored and repeated.
WHERE DOES THE PHONOLOGICAL LOOP RESIDE IN THE BRAIN
The phonological loop is linked to two key regions in the brain's left hemisphere (note its placement can be different in left-handers).
BROCA’S AREA: Associated with speech production and the articulatory control process (inner voice).
WERNICKE’S AREA: Related to sound processing and the phonological store (inner ear).
LIMITATIONS OF THE PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
The Phonological Loop has a limited capacity, meaning it can only hold a small amount of verbal information (about 2 seconds’ worth of speech). This is why it’s harder to remember long lists or complex instructions without writing them down.
SUMMARY OF THE PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
What it does: Handles verbal and auditory information.
Duration and capacity: Holds information for about 1-2 seconds (up to 3-4 seconds for brighter individuals or faster speakers).
Encoding: Relies on sound (acoustic information).
Location in the brain: Broca’s area (inner voice) and Wernicke’s area (inner ear).
Why it’s a loop: Repeats information to prevent it from fading.
This makes the phonological loop essential for tasks like remembering a phone number, learning new vocabulary, or following verbal instructions.
THE VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD: THE “INNER EYE
WHAT IT DOES
This system manages visual and spatial information. It’s a part of the Working Memory Model (WMM) that deals specifically with visual (what we see) and spatial (where things are) information.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
The Visuospatial Sketchpad helps us process and work with visual and spatial information in real-time. It explains why we can navigate, imagine, and manipulate images in our minds, making it a crucial part of our daily working memory.
The Visuospatial Sketchpad is often called the “inner eye” because it helps us visualise things and track where they are in space.
The visuospatial sketchpad is a key component of working memory, it allows us to temporarily hold and manipulate visual details Think of it as your brain’s mental whiteboard for images and locations.
The visuospatial sketchpad is divided into two components:
THE VISUAL CACHE
WHAT IT DOES: The visual cache stores visual information, such as:
Shapes
Colours
Patterns
Details of objects (e.g., the look of a building or the design of a jumper).
HOW IT WORKS: It acts like a mental snapshot, holding visual information briefly. However, this memory fades quickly unless you rehearse or focus on it.
EXAMPLES OF THE VISUAL CACHE IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Remembering the pattern of a friend’s shirt after they leave the room.
Visualising the design on a birthday card you saw briefly in a shop
If you look at a painting and try to remember its colours and patterns after looking away, you're using your visual cache.
The visual cache can play a role in temporarily remembering facial features as part of its function to store visual details like shapes, colours, and patterns.
HOW THE VISUAL CACHE HELPS WITH FACES
The visual cache holds short-term information about facial features, such as:
The shape of someone’s eyes or nose.
The overall structure of the face.
Unique patterns, like freckles or a specific hairstyle.
This is helpful when you need to quickly recall someone's face you just saw, like recognising a person across a room moments after seeing them. However, identifying and remembering faces in detail relies more heavily on other specialised brain areas.
THE INNER SCRIBE
WHAT IT DOES: The inner scribe processes spatial information and manages movement-related tasks,
HOW IT WORKS: It functions as an internal GPS, helping you recall objects' appearance and location and motion.
EXAMPLES OF INNER SCRIBE IN ACTION
HAND-EYE COORDINATION
Catching a ball: Tracking the ball's position and adjusting your hand movements to see it.
Writing: Align your pen on the paper and control your hand movements to form letters.
NAVIGATING SPACES
Walking through a cluttered room: Calculating the positions of furniture and objects to avoid bumping into them.
Finding your way in the dark: Mentally mapping the room's layout to navigate without tripping.
Remembering the position of objects (e.g., where your keys are on the table).
Mentally picturing where to place books on a shelf.
PICKING THINGS UP
Grabbing coffee: Judging the distance and angle to position your hand correctly.
Reaching for an object on a shelf: Planning the arm movement to avoid knocking other items over.
DRIVING
Staying in your lane: Keeping track of your car's position relative to the road and other vehicles.
Parking: Mentally visualising the space and manoeuvring your car into it.
ASSEMBLING OBJECTS
Building furniture: Visualising how pieces fit together and moving them into the correct positions.
Solving puzzles: Remember where pieces are and how to rotate or align them.
SPORTS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES
Playing tennis: Tracking the ball's position and timing your movements to hit it.
Swimming: Coordinating your arm and leg movements to stay on course
HOW THEY WORK TOGETHER
The visual cache and inner scribe collaborate to help us process and use visual and spatial information effectively. Imagine you're looking at a painting. Once you stop looking, your visual cache lets you remember the colours and details briefly, like a mental snapshot. But this memory doesn’t last long—it starts fading quickly unless you focus on it or think about it repeatedly.
The visual cache works closely with another system in your brain called the inner scribe, like your mental GPS. While the visual cache remembers what things look like, the inner scribe remembers where things are, like the position of objects in a room.
In short, the visual cache is a temporary storage system in your brain that helps you briefly hold on to visual details so you can use them immediately. It's not for long-term storage—just a quick helper for things you see at the moment,
CAPACITY, DURATION, AND ENCODING OF THE VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD
CAPACITY
The visuospatial sketchpad has a limited capacity, much like the phonological loop, but instead of verbal information, it processes visual and spatial data. Research suggests its capacity is approximately 3-4 objects or chunks of information at a time. However, this capacity can vary based on the complexity of the visual or spatial task. For instance, remembering simple shapes may be easier than recalling intricate patterns.
DURATION
The duration of the visuospatial sketchpad is also short-term, meaning it retains information for a few seconds unless actively rehearsed or manipulated. Without mental rehearsal or integration into long-term memory, the visual or spatial information quickly fades.
ENCODING
The visuospatial sketchpad encodes information in a visual (appearance-based) and spatial (location or arrangement-based) format. It deals with how things look (e.g., colour, shape) and where they are in space (e.g., positions, distances). This encoding allows you to visualise and mentally manipulate objects, such as imagining how furniture will look rearranged in a room or solving puzzles.
LIMITATIONS OF THE VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD
The visuospatial sketchpad has a limited capacity, meaning it can only hold a small amount of visual or spatial information at any given time. This restriction affects how much information it can store and how long it retains.
For example, visualising a detailed map while simultaneously picturing a complex object, like a building blueprint, would likely overwhelm its capacity. Similarly, the information stored in the sketchpad fades quickly unless actively maintained, making it ideal for short-term tasks but unsuitable for holding large amounts of detail for extended periods.
IN SUMMARY
The visual cache stores details about what things look like.
The inner scribe tracks where things are and plans movements.
For instance, when remembering a chessboard layout:
The visual cache stores the appearance of the pieces.
The inner scribe remembers the position of each piece on the board
THE OTHER PARTS OF THE WORKING MEMORY MODEL
THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE: THE “BOSS”
As discussed above, working memory is split into two key components: the visuospatial sketchpad (VSS) and the phonological loop (PL). However, a critical question arises: are they equal? Do these components receive the same amount of attention? Do we focus more on what we see and hear or visual and spatial information?
This is where the most critical component of the working memory model comes into play: the central executive.
THE "SLAVE SYSTEMS"
Baddeley and Hitch referred to the VSS and PL as slave systems, meaning they are subordinate to the central executive. These systems handle specialised tasks—processing visual, spatial, or auditory-verbal information—but depend on the central executive for guidance and coordination.
Think of the central executive as the manager, ensuring the "slaves" work efficiently and adapt to changing priorities.
SO, WHAT IS THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE?
WHAT IT DOES:
The central executive is responsible for directing attention and overseeing tasks. It doesn’t store information itself but instead acts as a decision-maker, performing three critical roles:
Directing the slave systems (VSS and PL) to focus on the most relevant task.
Example: If you’re driving while having a casual conversation, the central executive ensures that the phonological loop (conversation) and visuospatial sketchpad (monitoring the road) share attention appropriately.
Deciding when attention needs to shift between tasks.
Example: Imagine driving on a straight, easy road while chatting with a friend. Suddenly, the road becomes a narrow, dangerous mountain path. The central executive will reduce resources allocated to the phonological loop and redirect them to the visuospatial sketchpad so you can focus entirely on navigating the road.
Allocating mental resources between the VSS and PL based on the demands of the situation.
EXAMPLE IN ACTION
You’re multitasking while driving:
Initial Situation: You’re driving on a straight highway while casually chatting with a friend. The central executive ensures that the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad share attention equally, as neither task is particularly demanding.
Change in Demand: Suddenly, the road becomes a winding mountain path. The central executive shifts attention and resources away from the phonological loop (conversation) and directs the visuospatial sketchpad to focus entirely on navigating the dangerous road.
WHY IS THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE IMPORTANT?
The central executive ensures that the visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop work together seamlessly. It makes dynamic decisions about how attention and resources should be allocated between tasks based on their importance and difficulty. Without it, the slave systems would struggle to adjust to changing task demands, making multitasking or managing complex situations impossible.
In short, the central executive drives efficient task management and resource allocation in working memory.
THE EPISODIC BUFFER: THE “STORAGE ROOM”
WHY THE EPISODIC BUFFER WAS ADDED 25 YEARS LATER
The Episodic Buffer was introduced in 2000 by Baddeley as an addition to his Working Memory Model (WMM), initially proposed in 1974. It addressed gaps in the original model that became apparent through research and technological advancements over the decades.
WHAT WERE THE ISSUES WITH THE ORIGINAL WORKING MEMORY MODEL?
INTEGRATION PROBLEM
The original WMM included the phonological loop (verbal information), the visuospatial sketchpad (visual/spatial data), and the central executive (coordination of tasks). However, it did not explain how these components interact or combine information into a unified representation—the introduction of the episodic buffer addresses this.
MEMORY FOR COMPLEX INFORMATION
The WMM suggests limited working memory, typically lasting about 2 seconds. However, in real-life scenarios such as conversations, lessons, or stories, people can process and remember complex, structured information that goes far beyond isolated words or lists. For example, individuals can retain the overall narrative of a conversation or lesson, recalling key points and the sequence of ideas discussed over a more extended period.
Similarly, the visuospatial sketchpad also demonstrates limitations in capacity. For instance, people can remember more than just a snapshot of visual details when navigating a busy street or building. They retain an integrated sense of spatial layout, routes, and even temporary landmarks that exceed the sketchpad’s fundamental capacity for holding a few discrete visual or spatial items.
This ability to handle information that exceeds the capacities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad indicates the need for a multimodal storage system. Such a system enables the temporary storage of complex ideas, allowing individuals to retain and process them effectively.
INTERFACING WITH LONG-TERM MEMORY
The original WMM struggled to explain how working memory communicates with long-term memory (LTM). For example, working memory constantly accesses LTM in everyday tasks. When talking, the meanings of words are drawn from LTM. Similarly, when telling a story or explaining something, working memory relies on LTM to retrieve relevant schemas and continually draws on it to make sense of information. Even when understanding a film, you depend on LTM to identify objects and apply schemas.
This lack of explanation was a significant issue in the original WMM. While the WMM is a short-term memory (STM) model and does not address how information is stored in or retrieved from LTM, like models like Tulving’s theory or the MSM, it still needs to account for how STM and LTM communicate. Without this interaction, people would be unable to make sense of the world, as working memory alone could not provide the knowledge and frameworks required for understanding.
Thus, the WM lacked a mechanism to explain how working memory interacts with long-term memory (LTM). The episodic buffer addressed this as a bridge between STM and LTM, allowing the two systems to communicate and work together seamlessly.
EXPLAINING THE EPISODIC BUFFER
THE “STORAGE ROOM”
The episodic buffer integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory (LTM) into a unified and coherent representation. It also acts as a bridge between working memory and LTM, facilitating the transfer of meaningful information. Think of your brain as a super-organised workspace. In this workspace, the episodic buffer is a storage box that keeps everything organised and connected.
WHY IS IT CALLED "EPISODIC BUFFER"?
"Episodic" deals with "episodes" or chunks of information, like memories of specific events or experiences.
"Buffer": It temporarily holds and combines information.
WHY THE EPISODIC BUFFER IS IMPORTANT
BINDING PROCESS
It binds multiple streams of information into a meaningful whole.
Without this process, our memories and thoughts would remain fragmented.
STORAGE CAPACITY
It has a limited but larger capacity than other components, making it ideal for holding larger "chunks" of information.
EXAMPLE OF HOW THE EPISODIC BUFFER WORKS
Imagine you're watching a movie. The episodic buffer helps you:
Combine information from different sources:
The sound of the dialogue (your ears).
The images on the screen (your eyes).
Your past knowledge of the characters (your long-term memory).
The meaning of the story (your understanding).
It takes all of these bits and pieces and puts them together into a single, smooth "episode" in your mind so you can follow what's going on.
HOW IS IT DIFFERENT FROM OTHER PARTS OF MEMORY?
It doesn't process information itself (like the phonological loop processes sounds and the visuospatial sketchpad processes images).
Instead, it combines information from these systems and long-term memory to create a full picture.
OTHER EXAMPLES
BAKING A CAKE
Let’s say you’re baking a cake using a recipe you’ve seen on YouTube:
The phonological loop remembers the steps you heard the chef say out loud.
The visuospatial sketchpad remembers the video showing how to mix the batter.
Your long-term memory remembers how cakes usually taste.
The episodic buffer combines audio, visuals, and knowledge so you can bake the cake successfully.
In short, the episodic buffer is like your brain's "data organiser". It doesn’t create or process anything but ensures all the pieces fit together. Without it, life would feel like trying to watch a movie with random clips out of order!
PREPARING FOR AN EXAM
When revising for an exam, the episodic buffer lets you combine what you read (phonological loop), diagrams you see (visuospatial sketchpad), and related knowledge stored in LTM. This helps create a richer understanding of the topic.
NEUROSCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
Brain imaging studies show the episodic buffer may involve the hippocampus, which plays a key role in memory integration. This suggests that the episodic buffer isn't just a theoretical construct but is supported by neurological evidence.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The Episodic Buffer was introduced in 2000 by Baddeley to address gaps in the original Working Memory Model (WMM), first proposed in 1974. The addition was necessary because research revealed limitations in explaining how working memory components interact and process complex, multimodal information. The episodic buffer is essential to the Working Memory Model, solving integration problems and explaining how we combine multimodal information in real life. Its role in binding, storage, and interaction with LTM makes it a key component of human cognition.
KEY TAKEAWAYS FOR THE WORKING MEMORY MODEL
The Working Memory Model breaks STM into specialised systems:
The central executive oversees tasks.
The phonological loop manages sounds and words.
The visuospatial sketchpad handles images and spaces.
The episodic buffer integrates everything into a complete picture.
WHY DOES THE WMM MATTER FOR STM?
The WMM explains why STM isn’t just a single “box” of memory:
Multitasking: You can hum a tune (visuospatial sketchpad) while remembering a phone number (phonological loop).
Limitations: However, if you try to remember two sets of verbal instructions simultaneously, your phonological loop gets overloaded, making it challenging to manage both.
PREPARING TO WRITE ABOUT THE WORKING MEMORY MODEL (WMM)
When preparing to write about the Working Memory Model (WMM), it’s helpful first to outline its key elements.
The WMM is a modular model of memory consisting of the following components:
The Central Executive: The "boss" of the system that coordinates and manages attention and cognitive resources.
The Slave Systems:
Phonological Loop (PL): Handles verbal and auditory information and has two components:
Phonological Store: Temporarily holds sound-based information.
Articulatory Process: Rehearses verbal information to keep it active.
Visuospatial Sketchpad (VSS): Processes visual and spatial information and is subdivided into:
Visual Cache: Stores details such as shape and colour.
Inner Scribe: Rehearses spatial information and movement.
The Episodic Buffer: Introduced in 2000 to address criticisms of the original model, this component integrates information from the slave systems and links working memory to Long-Term Memory (LTM).
By identifying these components, you can structure your essay logically, starting with the history and function of the WMM and then explaining each element in detail.
MARK SCHEME: WORKING MEMORY MODEL A01
·Identification of components of the model and brief outline of their function:
Likely Features are the three main components: central executive, coordinating the other two slave systems, involved in attention and higher mental processes. It has limited capacity and can process information in any mode.
The phonological loop is involved in holding speech-based information and articulatory control processes of inner speech.
Visuospatial scratchpad deals with visual/spatial information and is involved in pattern recognition and perception of movement.
Four statements/descriptions of different components of the working memory model:
Stores acoustically coded items for a short period.
Stores and deals with what items look like and their physical relationship.
Encodes data in terms of its meaning.
It acts as a form of attention and controls slave systems.
Components of the working memory model descriptions of components: phonological store, visuospatial sketch pad, articulatory process, central executive.
SIX-MARK ANSWER: THE WORKING MEMORY MODEL
The Working Memory Model (WMM) was proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) to address limitations in the Multi-Store Model’s (MSM) description of Short-Term Memory (STM) as a passive and unitary store. The WMM describes STM as an active system with multiple components that temporarily store and manipulate information.
The model includes the Central Executive, which acts as a "boss" by allocating attention and resources to two slave systems: the Phonological Loop and the Visuospatial Sketchpad. The Phonological Loop processes verbal and auditory information and has two components: the Phonological Store, which holds sound-based information, and the Articulatory Process, which rehearses verbal information. The Visuospatial Sketchpad processes visual and spatial data and is divided into the Visual Cache, which stores visual details, and the Inner Scribe, which handles spatial information and movement.
In 2000, Baddeley added the Episodic Buffer to address criticisms of the original model. The Episodic Buffer integrates information from the slave systems and Long-Term Memory (LTM), creating unified episodes and supporting tasks like problem-solving and narrative comprehension.
The WMM provides a more detailed and dynamic explanation of STM than the MSM, highlighting how different types of information are processed simultaneously.
This version meets the requirements for a six-mark A-Level question by explaining the WMM’s components, addressing the addition of the Episodic Buffer, and contrasting it with the MSM for evaluation.
RESEARCH METHODS USED TO SUPPORT THE WORKING MEMORY MODEL
Like all areas of cognitive psychology, the kinds of research supporting the Working Memory Model (WMM) include a variety of methods:
COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
This method involves studying individuals with brain damage to understand how specific impairments correspond to memory processes. Initially reliant on post-mortems, this approach now uses modern brain imaging techniques to map affected areas and their cognitive implications.
EXPERIMENTAL COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Laboratory-based experiments examine the mechanisms of working memory under controlled conditions. This approach manipulates variables to observe how memory components function and interact, providing essential insights into the WMM.
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
Cognitive neuroscience uses neuroimaging techniques, such as fMRI and PET scans, to explore the biological underpinnings of working memory in neurotypical individuals. These methods identify the brain regions associated with distinct memory processes, such as the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive. They strongly support the Working Memory Model (WMM) and its modular structure.
Together, these research methods provide a robust framework for studying and validating the components of the Working Memory Model.
EVIDENCE FOR THE WORKING MEMORY MODEL
EXPERIMENTAL COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
BADDELEY AND HITCH DUEL TASK EXPERIMENTS
AIM
To investigate how performing two tasks simultaneously affects performance, depending on whether they use the same or different components of working memory.
METHOD
Participants were randomly allocated to three conditions and asked to perform one of the three independent variables/combinations of tasks that included:
Two verbal tasks (e.g., reasoning while recalling a digit sequence) – designed to test the phonological loop (PL).
Two visuospatial tasks (e.g., tracking a moving light while imagining a pattern) – designed to test the visuospatial sketchpad (VSS).
One verbal task and one visuospatial task (e.g., reasoning combined with tracking) – designed to test the independence of the PL and VSS
FINDINGS
Performance declined significantly when participants performed two tasks using the same component, such as two verbal or two visuospatial tasks. This was due to the limited capacity of the specific element (PL or VSS).
When participants simultaneously performed one verbal and one visuospatial task, performance was not significantly affected. This demonstrated that the PL and VSS are independent components of working memory.
CONCLUSION
The findings provided strong evidence for the modular structure of the Working Memory Model. The phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad operate independently, and the central executive plays a critical role in coordinating tasks across components.
REFERENCE
Baddeley, A.D., & Hitch, G.J. (1976). Working memory. In G.A. Bower (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation (pp. 47–89). Academic Press.
Baddeley, A.D., & Hitch, G.J. (1977). Recalling while reasoning: Performance limitations in a dual-task situation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology EX
ROBBINS ET AL. (1996) – CHESS PLAYERS
AIM: To discover how the central executive and other parts of working memory help people remember complex information, like chess positions.
WHY CHESS PLAYERS? Chess players were chosen because chess is a perfect example of a task that uses different parts of working memory:
Visuospatial sketchpad: Remember where pieces are on the board.
Central executive: Thinking ahead, planning moves, and focusing attention.
Phonological loop: It's not used in chess, so it’s a reasonable control.
PROCEDURES
Chess players had 10 seconds to memorise where 16 chess pieces were on a board.
While they did this, they had to complete one of two extra tasks:
Generate random letters (e.g., “H, G, P”): They couldn’t just say the alphabet (e.g., "A, B, C") because that would be automatic and easy. Coming up with random letters requires the central executive, which stops them from following patterns or habits.
Repeat “the, the, the”: This only uses the phonological loop, so it doesn’t affect the other parts of working memory.
After 10 seconds, they had to recreate the board positions from memory.
FINDINGS
Players generated random letters poorly because their central executive was busy and couldn’t focus on the chessboard.
Players did well when repeating “the” because this only distracted their phonological loop, which isn’t used for remembering chess positions.
CONCLUSIONS
Remembering chess positions depends on the visuospatial sketchpad and the central executive, not the phonological loop. This proves that the WMM has separate systems for visual, spatial, and verbal information.
BADDELEY, THOMSON, & BUCHANAN (1975) – THE WORD LENGTH EFFECT
AIM: To investigate how the phonological loop processes verbal information and whether word length affects memory performance.
DESIGN: Repeated-measures design with memory tasks.
PROCEDURE:
Participants memorised lists of short (e.g., "dog, cat") and long words (e.g., "university, hippopotamus").
In another condition, participants performed articulatory suppression (repeating nonsense sounds) while memorising.
FINDINGS:
Short words were easier to recall, supporting the limited capacity of the phonological loop (around 2 seconds).
Articulatory suppression disrupted rehearsal, reducing memory.
CONCLUSION: The phonological loop is responsible for verbal memory, with a limited capacity relying on rehearsal.
PERHAM & CURIE (2014) – BACKGROUND MUSIC AND MEMORY
AIM: To investigate how background music affects working memory performance.
DESIGN: Repeated-measures design with reading comprehension tasks.
PROCEDURE:
Participants completed reading tasks under four conditions:
No music.
Instrumental music.
Lyrical music they liked.
Lyrical music they disliked.
FINDINGS:
Performance was best in the no music condition and worst with lyrical music, regardless of preference.
CONCLUSION: The phonological loop is distracted by verbal input (like lyrics), impairing tasks involving words or language.
KLAUER & ZHAO (2004) – VISUAL CACHE AND INNER SCRIBE
AIM: To study the structure of the visuospatial sketchpad.
DESIGN: Repeated-measures design with visual and spatial memory tasks.
PROCEDURE:
Participants performed tasks involving:
Visual memory (e.g., remembering shapes or colours).
Spatial memory (e.g., remembering object locations).
Interference effects were tested by combining tasks.
FINDINGS:
Two visual tasks interfered with each other, reducing performance.
A visual task and a spatial task didn’t interfere.
CONCLUSION: The visuospatial sketchpad has two components:
Visual cache (handles colours and shapes).
Inner scribe (handles locations and movement).
COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
KF (SHALLICE & WARRINGTON, 1970)
AIM:
To investigate how brain damage affects short-term memory.
DESIGN:
Case study of a patient with brain damage.
PROCEDURE:
KF was tested on verbal memory tasks (e.g., recalling spoken numbers).
He was also tested on visual memory tasks (e.g., recognising shapes).
FINDINGS:
KF struggled with spoken information, which relies on the phonological loop.
He performed well on visual tasks, which rely on the visuospatial sketchpad.
CONCLUSION:
Verbal and visual memory are separate systems supporting the modular structure of the Working Memory Model (WMM).
LH (FARAH ET AL., 1988)
DETAILS:
LH was a patient with brain damage who showed impairments in spatial tasks (e.g., navigating a route) but performed well on visual imagery tasks (e.g., recognising objects).
RELEVANCE:
This case supports the idea that the visuospatial sketchpad has two subsystems:
A visual subsystem (visual cache) for processing images and shapes.
A spatial subsystem (inner scribe) for managing spatial relationships and movement.
SC (TROJANO & GROSSI, 1995)
AIM:
To investigate how brain damage affects verbal short-term memory.
DESIGN:
Case study of a patient with selective impairment.
PROCEDURE:
SC was tested on tasks requiring repetition of spoken words.
He was also tested on visual pattern recognition tasks.
FINDINGS:
SC couldn’t repeat words, which depends on the phonological loop.
He had no trouble remembering visual patterns which used the visuospatial sketchpad.
CONCLUSION:
The phonological loop (for verbal memory) and the visuospatial sketchpad (for visual memory) are independent components of working memory.
PV (VALLAR & BADDELEY, 1984)
DETAILS:
PV was an Italian woman who suffered a stroke, leading to damage in her phonological loop. She struggled to learn new words in a foreign language but performed well on non-verbal tasks like solving puzzles.
RELEVANCE:
This case demonstrates that the phonological loop plays a key role in:
Language acquisition (e.g., learning new words).
Verbal short-term memory.
KEY TAKEAWAY
These case studies demonstrate how brain damage can selectively impair components of the Working Memory Model, providing strong evidence for the separation of:
The phonological loop is responsible for verbal and language-related tasks.
The visuospatial sketchpad processes visual and spatial tasks and is divided into visual and spatial subsystems.
This evidence confirms that working memory is not a single system but a modular one, as described by the WMM.
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
SMITH & JONIDES (1999) – NEUROIMAGING AND MEMORY TASKS
AIM: To explore the neural basis of verbal and spatial working memory.
DESIGN: Repeated-measures design using PET scans.
PROCEDURE:
Participants completed verbal tasks (e.g., remembering words) and spatial tasks (e.g., remembering locations).
FINDINGS:
Verbal tasks activate the left hemisphere of the brain.
Spatial tasks activated the right hemisphere.
CONCLUSION: Verbal and spatial memory use different neural systems, supporting the separation of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.
BUNGE ET AL. (2000) – BRAIN SCANNING AND DUAL TASKS
AIM: To study how the central executive manages multitasking.
DESIGN: Repeated-measures design using MRI scans.
PROCEDURE:
Participants completed tasks individually and in dual-task conditions (e.g., identifying shapes and numbers simultaneously).
FINDINGS:
Dual tasks increased brain activity, especially in the prefrontal cortex.
CONCLUSION: The central executive is responsible for multitasking and managing attention, supported by prefrontal cortex activation.
KEY TAKEAWAY
Experimental Cognitive Psychology studies (e.g., Baddeley’s word length effect) provide behavioural evidence for the WMM’s components.
Cognitive Neuropsychology case studies (e.g., KF and PV) show how brain damage selectively impairs components like the phonological loop or visuospatial sketchpad.
Cognitive Neuroscience (e.g., Smith & Jonides, Bunge et al.) uses brain imaging to localise working memory functions in different brain areas.
This combination of approaches confirms the Working Memory Model as a robust explanation of short-term memory.
EVALUATION OF THE WORKING MEMORY MODEL
ADVANTAGES
SUPPORTING RESEARCH
Substantial evidence supports the idea of two slave systems within the Working Memory Model, as proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. This evidence comes from various sources, including case studies, experimental studies, and neuroimaging research:
Case Studies: Individuals with brain damage, such as Clive Wearing, have provided insights into the dissociation between different memory systems. Despite severe impairments in episodic memory, individuals like Clive Wearing demonstrate relatively preserved working memory abilities, suggesting the presence of distinct memory systems.
Experimental Studies: Studies utilising dual-task paradigms have consistently shown that individuals struggle to perform two tasks simultaneously if both functions rely on the same cognitive resources. For example, participants may have difficulty simultaneously completing a verbal reasoning task and a verbal memory task, indicating the limited capacity of the phonological loop.
Neuroimaging Research: Neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have revealed distinct neural networks underlying different components of working memory. For instance, studies have shown that verbal working memory tasks activate regions associated with language processing, while spatial working memory tasks activate regions involved in visuospatial processing. This supports the idea of separate neural substrates for the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.
The Working Memory Model (WMM) is supported by a wealth of research from diverse methodologies, making it one of the most robust and well-validated models in cognitive psychology. Cognitive neuroscience, cognitive neuropsychology, and experimental cognitive psychology contribute to a rich body of evidence that triangulates the model's key claims, enhancing its validity and reliability.
One of the WMM’s greatest strengths is the support from cognitive neuroscience, particularly neuroimaging studies. Techniques like fMRI and PET scans consistently show distinct brain regions activated during verbal and visual-spatial tasks, such as the left prefrontal cortex for linguistic tasks and the right prefrontal cortex for spatial processing. These findings align with the WMM’s distinction between the Phonological Loop and the Visuospatial Sketchpad, providing strong neural evidence for the model. Neuroimaging methods are highly objective and robust, reducing subjectivity or experimental bias concerns.
Additionally, cognitive neuropsychology, including case studies like KF (Shallice & Warrington), offers valuable insights by illustrating how damage to specific brain areas can impair certain aspects of working memory while leaving others intact. KF’s difficulties with verbal STM but intact visual-spatial STM strongly support the WMM’s assertion that STM is not a unitary store. However, neuropsychological evidence can suffer from validity issues due to the reliance on single cases that may not be generalised to the broader population.
Experimental cognitive psychology, such as Baddeley and Hitch’s dual-task experiments, further bolsters the WMM. These studies demonstrate that individuals can perform verbal and visual tasks simultaneously without interference, consistent with separate slave systems. Yet, the artificial nature of laboratory tasks raises concerns about ecological validity, as the controlled environments may not accurately reflect real-life memory use.
Despite these limitations, the convergence of findings across all three methodologies—neuroscience, neuropsychology, and experimental psychology—creates a robust case for the WMM. This triangulation of evidence enhances confidence in the model, as the strengths of another often mitigate the weaknesses of one method. For instance, while cognitive neuropsychology may lack generalisability, its findings are supported by robust and objective neuroimaging results, lending greater overall validity to the model.
SYNOPSIS OF OF WMM RESEARCH:
The Working Memory Model (WMM) has been evaluated through various methods, including case studies, experimental studies, and brain scans. Each method has inherent flaws: case studies cannot be readily generalized to the broader population, experimental studies may lack mundane realism and ecological validity, and brain scans may not capture the full complexity of cognitive processes. However, when considered collectively, along with brain scan data, the evidence overwhelmingly supports the notion that working memory is not a singular unit.
SUPPORT FROM NEUROSCIENCE
The WMM is supported by neuroimaging research that demonstrates distinct brain regions linked to its components:
The phonological loop is associated with Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area in the left hemisphere, activated during verbal tasks.
The visuospatial sketchpad involves the occipital and parietal lobes responsible for processing spatial and visual information.
The central executive is linked to the prefrontal cortex, particularly the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, active during tasks requiring attentional control.
While newer to the model, the episodic buffer likely involves the hippocampus and other areas involved in multimodal integration.
This evidence, derived from robust methodologies like fMRI and PET scans, strengthens the WMM’s validity and demonstrates how its components operate in the brain.
STM NO MORE
The Working Memory Model (WMM) provides a more dynamic explanation of short-term memory than earlier models like the Multi-Store Model (MSM). It emphasises active manipulation of information, highlighting how memory processes involve reorganising, prioritising, and integrating data. Unlike the passive depiction of STM in the MSM, the WMM portrays memory as the seat of consciousness, where real-time tasks like problem-solving, multitasking, and learning occur.
For example, dual-task experiments show individuals can manage two simultaneous tasks using distinct working memory systems (e.g., verbal and visual). This demonstrates the model’s versatility and ability to explain real-world cognitive function diversity.
APPLICATIONS TO THE REAL WORLD
The WMM has significant real-world applications, particularly in understanding and addressing cognitive challenges and educational needs.
Managing Mental Health Conditions: The WMM aids in understanding conditions like ADHD, OCD, Tourette’s syndrome, and schizophrenia, where central executive dysfunction is evident. For example, interventions targeting attentional control and impulse regulation (core functions of the central executive) can improve symptoms.
Diagnosing Educational Difficulties: The model explains learning disorders such as dyslexia and dyspraxia, where phonological loop deficits affect reading and verbal processing. Tailored interventions, such as breaking tasks into smaller chunks, can reduce cognitive load and improve outcomes.
Detecting Neurodegenerative Diseases: Declines in working memory, especially in the episodic buffer and central executive, are early indicators of dementia. Assessing working memory capacity allows for early diagnosis and intervention.
Improving Educational Practices: Teachers can use strategies like chunking, mnemonics, and multimodal teaching to enhance students’ working memory and learning efficiency.
CRITICISMS
LACK OF NEUROBIOLOGICAL SPECIFICITY
While neuroimaging studies support the Working Memory Model (WMM), it falls short in explaining how brain regions interact during memory tasks. Memory processing involves interconnected distributed networks not confined to isolated brain areas. For instance:
The prefrontal cortex is critical in directing attention and controlling decision-making (central executive functions).
The anterior cingulate cortex helps detect errors and resolve conflicts, such as prioritising tasks when overloading the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.
The parietal lobes are key for spatial awareness and coordinating visual and spatial information.
These regions do not operate independently. They are part of a complex, interconnected system, working together to perform tasks that require working memory, like solving a problem or remembering directions. For example, navigating to a new location while talking on the phone requires seamless interaction between the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and the central executive, all supported by distributed neural activity.
The WMM, however, simplifies this interaction. It attributes tasks to distinct components but does not explain how these components communicate or how multiple brain areas coordinate to complete real-world activities. This oversimplification limits its ability to represent the dynamic and interactive nature of memory processing.
Moreover, advances in neuroscience suggest that brain regions often share responsibilities across tasks. For instance, the anterior cingulate and parietal lobes are active during verbal and spatial tasks, indicating that the boundaries between the WMM components might not be as clear-cut as the model implies.
In summary, while the WMM identifies important brain regions linked to specific functions, it does not account for their interplay during working memory tasks. As a result, it provides an incomplete picture of the underlying neural mechanisms. Future model refinements could incorporate these interactions to align more closely with modern understandings of the brain's complexity.
ROLE OF THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
The central executive, often described as the "boss" of working memory, remains one of the least understood aspects of the Working Memory Model (WMM). While it is said to allocate attention and manage the two slave systems (phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad), the model provides little detail about how it performs these functions. This lack of clarity has led some to describe it as a “black box”, meaning it is assumed to exist but is not fully explained.
Neuroimaging research shows that tasks requiring executive control, such as multitasking or decision-making, activate multiple brain areas rather than a single, unified region. For example:
The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is involved in working memory tasks that require holding and manipulating information.
The ventromedial prefrontal cortex plays a role in decision-making and integrating emotional information.
The anterior cingulate cortex is essential for monitoring conflicts and errors, such as when two tasks compete for the same resources.
One major critique is the oversimplification of the CE as a singular, unified component. Instead, research suggests that executive functions are distributed across multiple brain regions. For instance, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex appears integral to working memory tasks, while the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is more closely associated with decision-making. Beyond the prefrontal cortex, the parietal cortex supports attentional allocation, and the anterior cingulate cortex aids in error detection, highlighting a broader neural network underpinning executive functions. This distributed processing challenges the WMM's straightforward depiction of the CE.
Further complicating this understanding is the case of patient EVR, studied by Eslinger et al. After undergoing surgery to remove a cerebral tumour, EVR exhibited a dissociation between reasoning and decision-making abilities. While he performed well on reasoning tasks, his decision-making was significantly impaired. This suggests that executive functions are distributed and modular, with distinct processes managing different cognitive demands. EVR’s case underscores the need for a more nuanced conceptualisation of the CE within the WMM framework.
This evidence suggests that the central executive is not a single entity but a distributed network of brain systems working together. For instance, in solving a math problem while listening to instructions, the central executive likely recruits different brain parts to prioritise the problem-solving process while temporarily storing the instructions.
The model does not adequately explain how these overlapping systems function together to allocate resources, resolve conflicts, or switch attention between tasks. For example, how does the central executive decide which task takes priority if the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad are overloaded? This ambiguity reduces the WMM’s explanatory power, especially compared to models like the Global Workspace Theory, which offers a more detailed account of attentional control.
In summary, while the central executive is a crucial component of the WMM, its poorly defined role and reliance on distributed brain networks highlight significant limitations. Further research is needed to clarify its mechanisms and refine its representation within the model.
INCOMPLETE EXPLANATION OF LONG-TERM MEMORY INTERACTIONS
While the episodic buffer was introduced to address the interaction between working memory and long-term memory (LTM), the Working Memory Model (WMM) provides a limited and somewhat vague explanation of how this occurs. The episodic buffer is theorised to integrate information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and LTM into a unified representation. Still, the specifics of how this integration takes place remain unclear.
LIMITATIONS IN RETRIEVAL AND STORAGE
The WMM does not sufficiently explain:
Retrieval from LTM: When working memory retrieves knowledge from LTM to make sense of current tasks—such as recalling the meaning of a word during conversation or using a schema to interpret a story—the model provides no detail on how this process is coordinated or managed by its components.
Storage into LTM: The WMM also lacks clarity on how information processed in working memory transitions into LTM for long-term storage. For example, encoding mechanisms, such as rehearsal or meaningful organisation, are generally mentioned but not explicitly tied to the episodic buffer or other components.
EXAMPLES OF UNEXPLAINED INTERACTIONS
In everyday tasks, working memory continuously draws on LTM:
The visuospatial sketchpad relies on previously learned maps stored in LTM when recalling a route.
When conversing, the phonological loop processes immediate verbal input while accessing the LTM for word meanings and prior context.
During problem-solving, the central executive integrates schemas retrieved from LTM to plan actions and evaluate solutions.
These tasks illustrate a bidirectional relationship between working memory and LTM that the WMM does not fully address. While the episodic buffer theoretically serves as a link, its mechanisms for retrieving, manipulating, and reintegrating information from LTM remain underdeveloped.
CONTRAST WITH OTHER MODELS
Alternative models, such as Logie’s (1999) Hierarchical Model, suggest that working memory depends more on activated representations within LTM, challenging the WMM’s modular approach. Similarly, Cowen’s Embedded Process Model argues that working memory is simply an activated subset of LTM, further blurring the lines between the two systems.
IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
To enhance its explanatory power, the WMM would benefit from:
Defining the episodic buffer’s role in retrieving and encoding multimodal information.
Expanding on how the central executive facilitates interactions between working memory and LTM.
Incorporating findings from neuroimaging studies to identify the neural basis of these interactions, particularly the involvement of the hippocampus in integrating and storing episodic information.
LIEBERMAN’S CRITIQUE OF THE VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD
Lieberman presents a compelling challenge to the Working Memory Model (WMM) by questioning the conceptualisation of the visuospatial sketchpad (VSS). The model assumes that spatial information is inherently linked to visual processing. Still, this perspective does not account for the experiences of individuals who lack visual input, such as those who are blind.
SPATIAL PROCESSING WITHOUT VISION
Research demonstrates that blind individuals can develop highly accurate spatial awareness using sensory modalities like auditory and tactile cues. For example:
Blind individuals can navigate environments and form mental maps without relying on visual imagery, highlighting their ability to process spatial information independently of vision.
Tasks involving object location, distance estimation, and movement often rely on non-visual spatial reasoning, challenging the assumption that the VSS is inherently visual.
This evidence suggests that spatial processing is a separate cognitive function, distinct from visual processing and that the WMM oversimplifies the VSS by conflating these two processes.
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE WMM
Lieberman’s critique highlights a significant limitation of the WMM: its inability to address sensory modality differences in spatial reasoning. Incorporating separate subsystems for visual and spatial processing would make the model more inclusive and accurate in representing human cognition.
CULTURAL AND SENSORY VARIATIONS
The Working Memory Model (WMM) assumes its processes are universal, but evidence suggests it may overlook significant individual and cultural differences. These differences challenge the idea that the components of working memory operate identically across all populations.
SENSORY VARIATIONS
Research on blind individuals highlights potential limitations in the model's conceptualisation of the visuospatial sketchpad. Blind individuals develop high spatial awareness without relying on visual input. This suggests that spatial and visual information may be processed independently rather than as a unified system. For example, blind individuals often use auditory or tactile cues to build detailed mental maps of their surroundings, indicating that the spatial component of the sketchpad can function independently of visual information. To account for this, the visuospatial sketchpad may need to be divided into two distinct systems: visual processing and spatial reasoning.
CULTURAL VARIATIONS
Cultural contexts also influence how working memory operates. For instance, individuals from cultures that use logographic writing systems, such as Chinese, often display enhanced visuospatial processing compared to those who use alphabetic systems, like English. This difference likely arises because logographic systems rely more on visual memory to recognise and recall complex character shapes. Conversely, alphabetic systems depend more heavily on the phonological loop for decoding sequences of letters.
These findings suggest that cultural practices can shape the dominant working memory components individuals rely on, challenging the universality of the WMM. For instance, in cultures where navigation plays a significant role in daily life, the visuospatial sketchpad may be more developed than in those where linguistic tasks are prioritised.
The WMM risks presenting an oversimplified view of working memory by failing to account for sensory and cultural differences. The evidence from blind individuals and culturally distinct populations highlights the need to adapt the model to reflect flexibility and diversity in how the human brain processes information. Refining the visuospatial sketchpad to acknowledge its dual roles and recognise the impact of cultural practices would make the WMM more inclusive and reflective of real-world cognitive processes.
EMOTIONAL INFLUENCES
The Working Memory Model (WMM) provides a detailed account of cognitive processes but largely ignores the impact of emotional factors on memory performance. Emotions, particularly stress and anxiety, can significantly influence how effectively working memory functions, especially in real-world contexts.
EFFECTS OF STRESS AND ANXIETY
Research shows that stress and anxiety impair the central executive’s ability to allocate attention and prioritise tasks. For example:
During high-stakes situations, such as exams or public speaking, individuals may find it harder to focus, switch between tasks, or inhibit irrelevant thoughts.
Stress hormones like cortisol can reduce activity in the prefrontal cortex, the brain region associated with the central executive. This impairs cognitive flexibility and decision-making, key functions of working memory.
Anxiety often leads to rumination, where intrusive thoughts compete for attentional resources. This reduces the capacity for tasks managed by the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, further limiting performance.
INDIVIDUAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DIFFERENCES
The Working Memory Model (WMM) provides a broad framework for understanding memory processes. Still, it does not adequately address variations in working memory capacity across individuals or how it changes throughout development and ageing. These omissions limit its applicability in accounting for real-world differences in cognitive functioning.
WORKING MEMORY IN CHILDREN
Working memory capacity increases significantly during childhood as the brain develops, particularly in areas like the prefrontal cortex, which supports the central executive. Research by Gathercole et al. (2004) highlights that the central executive shows prolonged maturation, often not reaching full functionality until adolescence. This gradual development affects children’s ability to allocate attention, integrate multimodal information, and manage complex tasks.
For example:
Young children may struggle with multitasking or following multi-step instructions due to an underdeveloped central executive.
The phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad also show age-related improvements, enhancing verbal memory and spatial reasoning.
The WMM does not account for these developmental trajectories or explain how the components interact differently at various stages of cognitive growth.
WORKING MEMORY AND AGEING
In older adults, working memory capacity often declines due to age-related changes in the prefrontal cortex. This decline is particularly evident in tasks requiring attentional control or cognitive flexibility, functions primarily governed by the central executive.
For instance:
Older adults may perform well on simple verbal or spatial tasks but struggle with dual-task situations or those requiring quick switching between tasks.
Episodic memory integration, reliant on the episodic buffer, also deteriorates, leading to difficulties in creating coherent narratives or recalling events.
The WMM does not provide insights into compensatory strategies or explain why specific components, like the phonological loop, may remain relatively intact while others, such as the central executive, experience a significant decline.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Beyond age, individual differences in working memory capacity, influenced by factors like genetics, education, and cognitive training, are not addressed in the WMM. For example:
Some individuals exhibit exceptional working memory capacities, enabling superior multitasking or problem-solving abilities.
Others, such as those with neurodevelopmental disorders like ADHD, show specific deficits, particularly in central executive functioning.
These differences highlight the need for a more flexible model that accommodates variability in how working memory operates across individuals.
MEMORY RESOURCES
FURTHER READING:
“The Universe Within” by Morton Hunt (Simon & Schuster, 1982)
“The 3-Pound Universe” by Judith Hooper and Dick Teresi (Dell Publishing Co, 1986)
“The Britannica Guide to the Brain” by Cordelia Fine (Robinson, 2008)
“Your Brain: The Missing Manual” by Matthew MacDonald (Pogue Press/O’Reilly, 2008)
https://writemypaperhub.com is a professional research paper writing website for ordering a unique academic project on human memory topics.
MEMORY WEBSITES:
(Wikipedia): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory (plus other links from there)
https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/memory/
How Human Memory Works (HowStuffWorks): http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/human-biology/human-memory.htm
How Amnesia Works (HowStuffWorks): http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/human-biology/amnesia.htm
Memory (Skeptic’s Dictionary): http://www.skepdic.com/memory.html
The Brain From Top To Bottom (McGill University): http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/
How Does Your Memory Work (BBC TV): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pxVb6M8UPTQ
Memory – Structures and Functions (State University): http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2222/Memory-STRUCTURES-FUNCTIONS.html
FILMS:
Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004), Michel Gondry
Three Colors: Blue (1993), Krzysztof Kieślowski
Memento (2000), Christopher Nolan
FIFTY-FIRST DATES
The Father [2021]
Still Alice (2014)
Away From Her (2007)
The Savages (2007)
The Notebook (2004)
A Song for Martin (2001)
Age Old Friends (1989)
Firefly Dreams (2001)
Iris: A Memoir of Iris Murdoch (2001
MEMORY TESTS
https://memtrax.com/test/
ASSESSMENT
Practice Quiz
Note: Select an answer for each question, then click the “Evaluate Quiz” button at the bottom of the page to check your answers.
One key difference between sensory and short-term memory is that
a. the information in sensory memory fades in one or two seconds, while short-term memories last several hours.
b. short-term memories can be described, while sensory memories cannot.
c. the quality and detail of sensory memory are far superior to those of short-term memory.
d. sensory memory stores auditory information, while short-term memory stores visual information.
The simplest way to maintain information in short-term memory is to repeat the information in a process called
a. chunking.
b. rehearsal.
c. revision.
d. recall.
Short-term memory is sometimes referred to as working memory because
a. to hold information in short-term memory, we must use it.
b. it takes effort to move information from sensory memory to short-term memory.
c. it is the only part of our memory system that we must actively engage to retrieve previously learned information.
d. creating short-term memories is a difficult task requiring a lot of practice.
An instructor gives her students a list of terms to memorize for their biology exam and immediately asks one student to recite them. Which terms will this student most likely recall from the list?
a. The student won’t recall any terms because he has not used rehearsal to encode them.
b. Since there was no delay in asking for the terms, the student will remember those at the end of the list, showing a recency effect.
c. Since there was no delay in asking for the terms, the student will remember those at the beginning of the list, showing a primacy effect.
d. The student will recall only those items to which he has attached some meaning, regardless of where they fall on the list.
An instructor gives her students a list of terms to memorize for their biology exam. After allowing the students three minutes to review the list, she asks one student to recite the terms from memory. What information will this student likely be able to recall from the list?
a. The student won’t recall any terms because he has not used rehearsal to encode them.
b. Since there was no delay in asking for the terms, the student will remember those at the end of the list, showing a recency effect.
c. Since there was a delay in asking for the terms, the student will remember those at the beginning of the list, showing a primacy effect.
d. The student will recall only those items to which he has attached some meaning, regardless of where they fall on the list.
Which of the following bits of information would be the easiest to chunk and thus encode?
a. 198274
b. IEKFES
c. 278392
d. XYZZYX
Which situation below describes the use of hierarchies for memorizing information?
a. Repeating each vocabulary term out loud five times and then reading its definition from the textbook
b. Organizing notes into three central themes and studying information about those themes
c. Writing down the definitions of every vocabulary term in the chapter and reading them out loud
d. Creating flashcards covering key concepts and reviewing the information until it is learned
Memory researchers define forgetting as the
a. inability to retain information in working memory long enough to use it.
b. sudden loss of information after head trauma.
c. inability to retrieve information from long-term memory.
d. process by which information is lost in transit from short-term memory to long-term memory.
Which situation describes the phenomenon of retroactive interference?
a. Samantha can’t recall what day of the week it is.
b. James keeps entering his old PIN with his new ATM card.
c. Darnell keeps referring to his old VCR as a Blu-ray player.
d. Frieda often calls her new boyfriend by her old boyfriend’s name.
Naming as many state capitals as possible requires engaging in
a. cued recall.
b. priming.
c. spreading activation.
d. free recall.
Which pair of words is most closely related to a semantic web?
a. Dog and cat
b. Dog and dig
c. Cat and cut
d. Cat and tiger
Jerome is shown pictures of five objects: a truck, a skyscraper, a cake, a lizard, and a pond. In which scenario is priming then utilized?
a. He is asked to list the photos he looked at and remembers only the cake, the lizard, and the pond.
b. He is told to remember the pictures and imagines a truck with a cake in the seat being driven by a lizard out of a pond and up the side of a skyscraper.
c. He is asked to describe something people eat for dessert, and he describes a chocolate cake.
d. He is asked to list the cards in the order he looks at them, and he remembers only the truck, the skyscraper, and the lizard.
The susceptibility of our memories to include false details that fit in with real details of an event is called the
a. priming effect.
b. interference effect.
c. tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
d. misinformation effect.
The method of loci is a mnemonic device that involves
a. thinking of a set of words that rhyme with the words you must memorize.
b. making a word out of the first letters of each term that you have to memorize.
c. mentally placing items to be remembered in some imaginary environment.
d. associating each word you must memorize with a set of pre-memorized words.
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon describes the experience of believing that you
a. have experienced something when you have not.
b. know something, but you are not able to articulate it.
c. heard someone say something when you did not.
d. know how to do something when, in fact, you do not.
Patient H.M., whose hippocampi and medial temporal lobes were removed, suffered from
a. anterograde amnesia.
b. confabulation.
c. retrograde amnesia.
d. Korsakoff’s syndrome.
A woman developed a tumour that diminished her ability to form new long-term memories. Though memory involves numerous parts of the brain, the part most likely affected by the tumour is the
a. thalamus.
b. hypothalamus.
c. cerebellum.
d. hippocampus.
Psychologists use the term _______ to describe memory for information that can be articulated, while _______ describes memory for information that aids the performance of tasks.
a. declarative; nondeclarative
b. nondeclarative; episodic
c. episodic; semantic
d. non-declarative; declarative
Which situation describes the use of episodic memory?
a. Belinda verified her identity over the phone by giving her date of birth.
b. Jim remembered the excitement of the birthday party his friends had planned for him.
c. Serena asked her teacher to name the capital of Mozambique.
d. Samir recalled that a Pan Am commercial jet had crashed over Scotland.
Semantic memories differ from episodic memories in that semantic memories
a. typically include very personal or emotion-laden information.
b. do not include any information about facts or word meanings.
c. do not include details about how information was learned.
d. include procedural information, like how to ride a bike.
Due to a lack of thiamine, people with Korsakoff’s syndrome develop cell loss in the
a. hippocampus.
b. basal ganglia.
c. mammillary bodies.
d. pons.
Information contained in non-declarative memory includes associations between stimuli that elicit behaviour. These associations are learned via
a. conditioning.
b. habituation.
c. observational learning.
d. procedural learning.
Neuroscience researchers often refer to the physical memory trace in the brain as the
a. engram.
b. hippocampus.
c. hypothalamus.
d. Hebbian synapse.
A Hebbian synapse is a theoretical relationship between two neurons in which the strength of the connection between neurons is a function of
a. when the presynaptic neuron receives information.
b. when the stimulation of both neurons can be extinguished.
c. how often does the presynaptic neuron cause the post-synaptic neuron to fire?
d. whether the postsynaptic neuron causes the presynaptic neuron to inhibit firing.
Long-term potentiation is the term neuroscientists use to describe long-lasting
a. deficits in memory from Korsakoff’s syndrome.
b. mnemonic potential.
c. synaptic inhibition.
d. strengthening of synaptic transmission.
Outline the working memory model (6 marks)
· Describe the strengths of the working memory model (4)
· Describe the weaknesses of the working memory model (4)
· Identify and explain one weakness of the working memory model (4 marks)
· Identify and explain one strength of the working memory model (4 marks)
· Outline and evaluate The Working Model of Memory (16 Marks)
· Discuss The Working Model (16 Marks)
SCENARIOS
Let's explore a few scenarios to understand further how our memory systems manage attention during multitasking:
A. Imagine solving a complex algebra equation while learning a new dance routine.
B. Think about reciting a poem from memory while cycling.
C. Picture yourself driving down a narrow, treacherous mountain path while intensely debating climate change.
D. Consider swimming the butterfly stroke while counting backwards in twos.
QUESTIONS
Is it possible to perform both tasks simultaneously without one affecting the concentration required by the other?
For each scenario, identify the task that relies on phonological processing and the one that requires visuospatial processing.
For each scenario, decide whether:
Both tasks are easy.
Both tasks are challenging.
One task is challenging, while the other is easier.
ANSWERS
A complex algebra problem and learning a new dance simultaneously? It's unlikely. Both tasks demand significant attention, meaning the Central Executive must decide which task to focus on to avoid failing both.
Reciting a poem from memory while cycling? This might be manageable, as both tasks might not require excessive additional attention, allowing the Central Executive to distribute resources evenly.
Driving on a perilous mountain path while debating vigorously about climate change? Again, probably not. The complexity of both tasks means the Central Executive would have to prioritize, likely focusing more on driving to ensure safety.
Could a professional footballer execute a tackle while counting backwards in twos? In this case, the tasks could be managed with uneven attention. The physical task might not hamper the simple mental task of counting, suggesting the Central Executive can allocate resources differently based on task demands.
