CHALLENGING CRITICAL RACE THEORY
In this essay, I aim to challenge progressive race theories. This exploration seeks to provide a thorough critique of the assumptions and methodologies that underpin contemporary racial discourse.
The discussion centres around social equity and historical responsibility, particularly reparations.
THE CLAIMS MADE BY CONTEMPORARY PROGRESSIVE RACE THEORIES
Not long ago, the term "critical race theory" or “white privilege” would have left many Americans and Europeans puzzled and uninterested. However, this once-obscure academic concept has gained widespread attention. It is now commonly discussed by politicians, journalists, teachers and social media. But what are these terms, and where did they originate?
CRITICAL RACE THEORY
In this version of CRT, the term "critical" indicates the purpose of identifying and exposing problems to foster revolutionary political change.
The initial iteration of Critical Race Theory (CRT) emerged in the 1970s, during the post-civil rights era, with a materialistic approach. This materialist approach emphasised tangible factors such as economic structures, legal systems, and political institutions. Its primary concern was understanding how material systems contributed to racial inequalities and disparities. It examined issues like economic disparities, uneven access to resources, and the impact of laws and policies on marginalised racial groups. Primarily, it sought to uncover and understand the root causes of racial injustice.
The material approach believes race is a social construct without a biological basis. In their view, racism is a result of complex social and institutional dynamics rather than explicit individual prejudices. Thus a key concept within this version of CRT is intersectionality, e.g., how race, class, gender, and disability intersect to shape various forms of inequality and identity.
In short, the materialist approach challenges the notion of U.S. law as "neutral" and argues that seemingly colour-blind laws lead to racially discriminatory outcomes. Scholars in this approach contend that the legal construction of race often serves the interests of white individuals at the expense of people of colour.
THE POST-MODERN APPROACH TO CRT:
This approach directed its attention towards linguistic and social systems, reorienting the focal point to underscore the significance of language, discourse, and societal narratives in shaping individuals' racial experiences.
The postmodern approach of CRT emerged in the latter part of the 20th century and gained considerable motion during the 1980s and onward, marking a significant evolution in CRT's analytical frameworks. It is now the prominent approach.
The recent evolution within Critical Race Theory (CRT) deviates from its original focus on structural analysis and real-world impact. This newer movement shifts towards discussions about race framed within post-racial ideals and is notably influenced by certain philosophical perspectives, especially those of white feminists. Postmodernists are driven by deconstructing discourses, revealing implicit biases ingrained in language, and questioning the fundamental racial assumptions and attitudes deeply embedded in societal narratives. It also examines the language and discussions surrounding racial issues, prioritising how individuals talk about race.
The postmodern divergence in focus has led to criticism from materialists, who argue that postmodernists prioritise intangible and subjective discourse analyses in affluent academic settings, neglecting prevalent material issues like poverty. In response, postmodernists assert that improving material reality requires addressing discourses favouring White people.
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WHITE PRIVILEGE
W.E.B. Du Bois introduced concepts that laid the foundation for white privilege. However, it was Peggy McIntosh who, in 1989, explored these notions in her influential paper titled "White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack.”
McIntosh came from a background of notable privilege. She grew up in a well-off New Jersey suburb, far wealthier than the average American. Her father was a key figure at Bell Laboratories. Her education at prestigious institutions like Radcliffe, UCL, and Harvard solidified her place in America's elite. She also married into an academically inclined family.
Yet, McIntosh's examination of privilege wasn’t about her wealth or social standing. She explored the concept of being white and found that subtle yet significant advantages came with it. She described these perks as items in an 'invisible knapsack and suggested that all white people carry certain benefits. Moreover, this will always be true regardless of social or economic background. McIntosh believed that many white people often didn't realise they had privilege.
For the full article on white privilege click the link below:
DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION
Since Peggy McIntosh's influential work, discussions around white privilege have significantly broadened, moving beyond academic circles to infiltrate the realms of media and education. This shift away from the usual class-cantered British conversation about privilege offered a new perspective on injustices as it focused on race. The concept has now been embraced in postmodern interpretations of Critical Race Theory and has become a central element of activism, prominently featured in movements like Black Lives Matter.
The advent of social media has also played a crucial role in emphasising the relevance of CRT by amplifying and diversifying the dialogue. Thus, the ideology of white privilege now extends beyond its American roots and is recognised globally.
RETRAINING THE BIASED MIND
This recognition has culminated in a growing consensus among social justice advocates and scholars about incorporating diversity, unity, and equity training in schools and workplaces. Moreover, there is a growing movement that believes the descendants of white colonists should pay reparations for the abuses of the Atlantic slave trade.
Many universities worldwide have incorporated diversity, equity, and inclusion concepts into their curricula, particularly in the English-speaking world. This is exemplified by a conference at Edinburgh University in 2019 titled “Resisting Whiteness,” which prohibited white individuals from speaking to ‘amplify the voices of people of colour’ and give them a platform to talk. Moreover, In the public sector, employees must now participate in frequent unconscious bias training. In a notable example, New York's school system implemented compulsory anti-bias and equity training for its 75,000 teachers,
In addition to this, senior school officials received training that attributed qualities such as perfectionism, high regard for written communication, individualism, and objectivity to white supremacy. There are also increasing concerns about how companies address racial issues, exemplified by Coca-Cola's controversial diversity training that suggested white employees be "less white. Even the entertainment industry is not immune to this ideology; a London theatre faced backlash after organising a "blackout" event where white people were urged not to attend. The Theatre Royal Stratford East, in London aimed to create a “safe, private” space to allow an “all-black-identifying audience” to explore race relations “free from the white gaze.
DEBUNKING THE CLAIMS
INSTITUTIONALISED RACISM
Proponents of progressive race theories acknowledge that although white people can face hardships and challenges, their skin colour is never the source of these hardships. But the notion that white people's deprivations will never be as abhorrent as black people’s is simply folklore. Postmodern race theorists have blatantly ignored the complexity of the societal structures that create inequality. And despite their lofty assertion that colour is the ultimate trump card, they have conflated class with racial privilege as white people encounter economic challenges that are commensurate to those experienced by poor black people.
This point is illustrated by the fact that many white Americans/British have not enjoyed the same level of educational attainment or economic success as other ethnic groups in the U.S. and UK, for example, Indian Americans and Taiwanese Americans. Generalising white people as having universally shared advantages not only in the United States but also in the broader Western context can be seen as insensitive, particularly to those affected by tragedies such as the *opioid crisis in America, often referred to as the “white death,” which has significantly impacted white communities in the American South. It also raises the question of whether adherents to this theory have had direct experiences with individuals from these communities. Indeed, McIntosh’s upbringing in a highly privileged environment led some to argue that her perception of White Privilege" is more reflective of people from her background with upper /middle-class status than the experience of all white people.
Data indicates a significant educational disparity. For example, the educational and occupational landscape in the UK shows marked diversity among ethnic groups. British students of Chinese, Indian, and African descent frequently outperform others, with average scores between 66.1 and 61.3. In contrast, White British and Black Caribbean students attain much lower scores. A significant observation is that white Travellers, including Irish Travellers and Gypsy/Roma, record the lowest scores at 25.1. Additionally, 47% of White British students eligible for Free School Meals are the lowest scorers among all disadvantaged ethnic groups (UK Education and Training Statistics.
UK Government) White students also emerge as the demographic least likely to attend university. This scenario poses a challenge to the traditional concept of White Privilege". It raises the question of a possible "brown privilege," especially considering the success of Indian communities in both the US and the UK.
However, the situation becomes more complex when considering other Southeast Asian groups like Bangladeshis and Pakistanis, who have significantly lower educational achievements plus higher arrest and incarceration rates. These disparities suggest that socioeconomic factors like poverty, religion and family background might have a more significant influence on educational and economic success than race alone.
Indeed, Thomas Sowell, an African American economist and author known for his precise use of statistics, has pointed out the misleading nature of certain media-reported statistics. For example, he highlights that the stark disparity in household wealth between Black and white Americans is predominantly seen in the top 10% of households, which is a segment that often identifies as "woke." Conversely, he notes that in the lower 50% of households, the wealth gap between Black and white families is considerably smaller, standing at just 3%. Contrarily, being Black in higher American societal circles, particularly in media and academia, can be advantageous. African American professionals in these fields often find themselves in high demand. They may have a competitive edge in hiring and promotions due to factors like affirmative action and diversity initiatives.
McIntosh's interpretation of white privilege fails to adequately consider the economic hardships faced by numerous white individuals, particularly regarding higher education and income in the U.S. and the UK.
A significant issue arises from the common practice of treating white people as a homogeneous group. This is particularly apparent in data collection methods, where it is common for only a single category to be available for white individuals. Such an approach not only overlooks the diversity within this demographic but also fails to acknowledge the economic and social discrepancies that exist among them
*2021, Drug use across ethnicities: American Indian or Alaska Native (36.1%) or Multiracial people (34.6%) were more likely to have used illicit drugs in the past year compared with Black or African American (24.3%), White (22.5%), Hispanic or Latino (19.4%), or Asian people (11.1%).
THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
Is CRT any less blinkered about the criminal justice system? From 2017 to October 2023, the United States saw 707 fatal police shootings, with Black Americans disproportionately affected. In 2022, there were 1,097 fatal shootings, with a higher rate for Black Americans. African Americans also face higher arrest rates for property and violent crimes and are overrepresented in prisons. In the UK, "stop and search" tactics disproportionately target Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnic individuals, leading to higher arrest rates for Black and Mixed ethnicity individuals compared to white people. The UK also has disparities in imprisonment rates, with a higher black population in prisons.
CRIME STATISTICS
In the U.S. and UK, crime data reveal racial disparities in arrests and victimisation, with African Americans disproportionately involved in crimes, especially homicides and robberies. For instance, in the U.S., African Americans represent a significant portion of both perpetrators and victims in homicide cases. Non-fatal assault statistics show white individuals account for about half of such incidents, with black and Hispanic populations more prone to fatal firearm-related injuries, leading to more homicides. In the UK, knife crimes replace gun crimes in this context. Robbery figures indicate more frequent instances involving white victims and black offenders than the reverse. Studies suggest a potential correlation between racial diversity in neighbourhoods and crime rates.
EXPLANATIONS FOR RACIAL DISPARITIES IN CRIME STATISTICS
John McWhorter, a professor at Columbia University, in an essay in Quillette, acknowledges the existence of racist officers and systemic racism within some police departments but urges against making sweeping generalisations about all law enforcement personnel. He argues against the view that police violence against black men is solely due to racism in law enforcement. For example, the statistics on police shootings in the United States do not indicate that white officers overwhelmingly commit shootings of Black Americans. Moreover, McWhorter believes that police violence is partly due to higher crime rates in black communities, leading to more police interactions. Supporting this, Roland Fryer (Fryer, R. 2017), a Harvard economist, found no significant difference in the likelihood of police shooting at Black or White individuals. However, the study did find that Black individuals are more likely to experience rough treatment, such as being handcuffed, pushed against a wall, or onto the ground by police officers. Fryer's research also observed that in Houston, police were about 20% less likely to shoot when the suspect was Black in tense situations. These findings suggest a complex picture of police interactions with different racial groups.
McWhorter underscores the significance of valuing the perspectives of the wider Black community on issues such as crime, education, and employment quotas. He advocates for a balanced view, critiquing the focus on viewpoints of progressive race theories often favoured by liberal media. He then highlights how socio-economic disparities and poverty contribute to higher crime rates among black individuals. He points to factors like childhood exposure to violence, the inability to post bail, housing segregation, and coming from a single-parent household that might have a greater impact on economic and educational success than race alone.
For example, the association between single-parent households and crime, particularly in low-income communities, reveals some significant insights. Research indicates that family structure and the lack of paternal involvement are predictive of juvenile delinquency. Children with more opportunities to interact with their biological fathers are less likely to commit crimes or have contact with the juvenile justice system. In studies, a higher percentage of teenagers from father-absent homes were found to have higher incarceration rates compared to those from two-parent families. This trend was observed in general and specifically in black communities.
The absence of a father in a child’s life may increase the odds of the child associating with delinquent peers and involvement in criminal activities. Boys from father-absent homes often lack male role models, which can affect their development and behaviour, including a higher likelihood of gang involvement. Furthermore, fatherless homes have been linked to various adverse outcomes, such as higher rates of childhood obesity, substance use, poor school performance, and mental health issues. In the UK (the US has similar stats) family structures vary significantly by ethnicity. Black Caribbean families have the highest proportion of lone parents at 57%, followed by Black African families at 44%. And then White British families at 22%. In contrast, Asian households have the lowest proportion of single-parent families, at only 5.7%. This highlights the diversity in family structures across different ethnic groups ( Ethnicity Facts and Figures page).
REASSESSING COLLECTIVE RESPONSIBILITY IN THE LEGACY OF SLAVERY
EVERYBODY IN THE PAST HAD DODGY VIEWS
“Every white supremacist has African and Chinese ancestors.”
Proponents of critical race theory believe that all white Europeans are beneficiaries of the transatlantic slave trade and should take the blame irrespective of any modern liberal and non-racist ideologies. But shouldn’t the sins of the people who lived during this era be contextualised to the prevailing enlightenment at the time? During the period of the transatlantic slave trade, individuals would have held views commensurate with the collective wisdom of the day. People today benefit from historical progress and education, which have fostered more egalitarian views. This viewpoint emphasises what Issac Newton referred to “as standing on the shoulders of giants that lived before us”. In short, blaming people for views that corresponded with the zeitgeist they lived in demonstrates a profound lack of insight.
THERE IS NO SUCH THING AS RACE
The debate surrounding culpability becomes even more complicated when considering the concept of racial purity. David Reich's groundbreaking research on insights derived from studying human DNA challenges the conventional notion of genetic purity within human populations.
Contrary to widespread belief, the DNA of white and black people is not fundamentally different; almost all humans share the same genetic codes., indicating their recent origins in Africa. The continent itself boasts greater genetic diversity than the entire rest of the world combined. On average, an individual from Senegal is more genetically distinct from someone from Angola than either is from anyone else on the planet.
Given the extensive genetic variations within African and African diaspora populations, categorising individuals based on visual distinctions, such as white, black, or brown, is not only biologically incoherent but also fails to accurately represent the genetic differences—or similarities—among the human race. Thus, relying on skin colour as a basis for reparations is an oversimplification that fails to account for the intricate ancestral tapestry amongst these nations.
Some may perceive this argument as inconsequential, given that such ancestral lines originated thousands of years ago whilst slavery was only recent. However, it's essential to recognise that bloodlines continually change; for example, the history of the transatlantic slave route involved the abduction of up to 12 million individuals from four, possibly five, or even six countries. En route, they were mixed and redistributed, with approximately half perishing during transit, leaving their ancestry unrecorded. In the Americas, particularly the USA, African people faced redistribution and sale, shaping the unique sexual and family history of the African-American experience and resulting in a distinct genome compared to their African origins.
Modern genetics reveals European DNA in the African-American genome, primarily introduced through unions between male Europeans and female African Americans. Post-colonial nations consist of diverse populations, including Caribs, Indigenous peoples, Latinos, Europeans, and Africans. In Jamaica, it is estimated that approximately one-quarter of the population possesses European ancestry, mostly as a result of slave rape. Moreover, many white Americans carry up to 20% African ancestry. But biracial individuals cannot be held accountable for the horrendous actions of forefathers against their maternal lines. But shouldn't this consideration also be applied to the descendants of slave owners, as surely they, too, are not responsible for the sins of their ancestors? Lastly, If no race is pure, is it justifiable to attribute proportional responsibility, such as those with whiter DNA paying more?
THE COMPLEX NATURE OF MODERN SLAVERY
Perhaps the most poignant aspect of discourse on reparations and white privilege is the stark realisation that modern forms of slavery, particularly rampant in regions like Asia and Africa, can be even more heinous than their historical predecessors. This unsettling truth further complicates the issue of reparations, as it raises questions about addressing an institution's legacy when contemporary abuses surpass its historical manifestations. Modern slavery, encompassing forced labour, human trafficking, and child exploitation, often operates covertly, yet its impacts are devastatingly pervasive. This contemporary reality challenges the traditional view of slavery as a closed history chapter and highlights its ongoing, evolving nature.
The existence of these modern forms of slavery not only perpetuates the suffering of millions but also forces a reconsideration of the legacy of slavery. It brings to light the crucial understanding that the fight against slavery is not confined to history books but continues in various insidious forms in the present. It is imperative to recognise that the current manifestations of slavery continue to plague societies around the world (Global Slavery Index: Walk Free Foundation).
XENOPHOBIA AND WAR
While the transatlantic slave trade is an undeniable part of British and American history, it's crucial to recognise that these nations were not alone in this practice. Historical accounts reveal that from the 16th to the mid-18th century, over a million Europeans were enslaved and traded in the slave markets of the Barbary Coast, which included regions of North Africa like Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco. African-American economist Thomas Sowell stated that the number of whites enslaved in North Africa was higher than the number of Black slaves taken to the United States or its 13 original colonies.
In a similar hypocritical vein, ignoring the fact that all countries across the globe have a dark history of subjugation and oppressing minority groups is surely cherry-picking aspects of history to fit the narrative. All nations have their own horror stories of injustice and cruelty. Omitting this broader, painful history and only spotlighting the transatlantic slave trade can feel like a selective view of a much larger, universal problem of human rights abuses.
This historical pattern of conflict and domination raises questions about our intrinsic tendencies as a species. In this context, evolutionary theories offer insights into the primal aspects of human nature. According to Davie, M.R. (1929),’ man the fighting animal’ has evolved out of conditions of never-ending conflict, resulting in the continuous extermination of the unfit. Evolutionary survival strategies drive survival in this continuous struggle and have been the product of order and mutual aid within groups. Read (1920) said that hominids and early humans formed hunting packs that were inclined to be aggressive toward strangers. The stark reality is that every person today descends from murdering ancestors who, at some point in history, engaged in acts of terror.
Moreover, blaming Europeans for the transatlantic slave trade becomes hypocritical when acknowledging the historical involvement of specific African tribes. Their role often included capturing individuals from rival groups or as prisoners of war and then selling these captives to European traders. These interactions profoundly impacted the time's social, economic, and political landscapes. Such involvement complicates the narrative of historical accountability. The counterargument would be that not all African societies were involved in slavery. However, this argument should also apply to Europeans, as not all Europeans were involved in the slave trade (J. D. Fage).
COMPLICITY IN THE TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE
Complicity for the transatlantic slave trade did not extend beyond the upper classes, as only the elite had power during this time. For example, in the UK, only upper-class men had voting rights, with working-class men and women only gaining these rights in 1918. This fact is crucial in discussions about reparations, highlighting how decisions profiting from slavery were made without the consent or involvement of the majority. However, critics still point out that the white working class benefitted indirectly from slavery, e.g., reduced prices of commodities. Karl Marx's observations on the working class emphasise the exploitation of the working class by the capitalist class. He argued that the disenfranchised working class just played a rigged role that unknowingly contributed to the exploitation of enslaved Africans.
But even in the US, the notion that the majority was involved in or benefited from the slave trade is a broad generalisation. Historical records indicate that in 1860, less than a quarter* of Americans owned slaves and that the vast majority of white Southerners did not have a direct economic stake in the continuation of slavery. Similarly, in Great Britain and Ireland during the 18th and 19th centuries, the proportion of the population that were slave owners or directly benefited from the slave trade was quite minimal. Thus, attributing collective blame to an entire ethnic group for the actions of a few is surely a form of racism (Jacobson, Louis (2017).).
Finally, given that no living white person owned slaves and not all black Americans are descendants of slaves, the call for reparations is seen as irrelevant to the current generation. The only remarkable thing about Britain and America when it comes to the atrocities of slavery is that both countries devoted considerable effort and wealth to ending it. The efforts of the Civil War, particularly emancipation and union preservation, are viewed as a significant address of slavery's wrongs. The UK's abolition of slavery, led by figures like William Wilberforce and supported by the upper classes, culminated in the Slave Trade Act of 1807 and the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833, ending slavery in the British Empire. This history suggests that a majority with voting rights opposed slavery.
*The calculation of slave owners is based on the following information. According to the census of 1860, the population of the United States numbered 31,443,321 persons. Approximately 23,000,000 of them were in the twenty-two northern states and 9,000,000 in the eleven states that later seceded (In 1860, 1% of white southern families owned 200 or more human beings, but in states of the Confederacy, at least 20% owned at least one and Mississippi, and South Carolina ran as high as fifty per cent) In 1860, 90% of America’s black population was enslaved, and blacks made up over 50% of the population of states like South Carolina and Mississippi. Slavery was also a dominant feature of the antebellum South. Still, it was also pervasive in the pre-Civil War North—the New England states of Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island all have a history of slavery.
BACKLASH
There has been a backlash against forced compliance with DEI as many measures infringe on individual freedoms and can create an environment of compelled conformity. Others view the concepts and measurement of concepts like “unconscious bias” and “white privilege” as pseudo-science. For example, In practical terms, assessing unconscious bias through measurements such as the Implicit Association Test (IAT) raises concerns about its utility. No empirical evidence exists demonstrating the test’s predictive power regarding individual behaviour. Nevertheless, it is routinely used in retraining exercises for companies who want their employees to align their perceptions with organisational directives. This trend is observed across various institutions, including the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), where it has become mandatory.
Additionally, identity politics, as manifested in critical race theory (CRT), is paradoxically criticised for perpetuating racial stereotypes. This viewpoint suggests that CRT oversimplifies intricate social dynamics, placing all individuals within an ethnic group under broad, monolithic labels. The emphasis on systemic blame and the psychological damage caused by magnifying racial barriers and tension between groups is a point of contention. For example, concerns have been raised about CRT's impact on white students, focusing on instances of perceived bias, such as the claim that white students are told they are second in line to speak. This approach is considered a type of child abuse as it places the burden of historical wrongs on their shoulders, a perspective deemed abnormal and unnecessary. The highlighting of physical segregation in schools, including racially segregated sessions and a legal case alleging unequal class assignments based on race, emphasises the argument that treating one group of students differently based on race may lead to neo-segregation and have detrimental effects on the mental well-being of students.
Furthermore, the theory has been associated with a surge in far-right movements. Critics argue that the approach of CRT can stifle open discussion and criticism from whites, confounded by the belief that one must either accept racism as the issue or be labelled racist. This, in turn, places many in a double bind situation, which can cause a withdrawal from the conversation altogether or, even worse, cause resentment, leading to radicalisation.
Even questioning the narrative can lead to "cancel culture." as there have been countless instances where criticism against critical race doctrine has led to negative outcomes. For example, educators have lost jobs for teaching concepts that question white privilege, and there have also been instances of book bans and changes in school accreditation. This, in turn, creates an environment of segregation and reinforces racial divides, contradicting the goals of anti-racism.
Cynics also point out that CRT and Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion programs persist in their approaches without acknowledging the perceived failure of affirmative action policies and unconscious bias training.
Supporters of CRT argue that the concepts associated with progressive theories are misunderstood and exaggerate white people as oppressors. CRT supporters believe this causes confusion among scholars and the general public. Supporters of CRT often contend that they do not attribute racism to white individuals or entire groups. Instead, they assert that people need to acknowledge that racism can persist without overt, intentional acts of racism.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE BLACK HETERODOXY
Numerous individuals, especially within the Black community, feel disconnected from the prevailing anti-racism narrative, which sometimes carries paternalistic undertones and perpetuates the portrayal of black Americans as historical victims. These unconventional thinkers critique progressive concepts like identity politics, which they see as prioritising group identity over individual autonomy. They view such ideas as shallow attempts to fill the moral void left in the aftermath of the civil rights era. They aim to dismantle established progressive race theories, foster new conversations, and propose solutions within mainstream discourse. The focus is on engaging individuals who are hesitant to explore dimensions of racial inequality beyond historical contexts. This hesitancy may stem from concerns about potential political and social repercussions, including cancel culture, or from exposure to false narratives about racism.
Project 21, a black leadership network, contends that progressive race ideologies are detrimental to black Americans and foster division within American culture. The perspective is that black students may find the situation troubling, as CRT teaches them to see their future as predetermined by the system rather than shaped by their efforts. This narrative is seen as discouraging hard work and fostering distrust towards white teachers. Members of Project 21 assert that CRT's emphasis on race-based indoctrination is harmful and advocate for a focus on authentic black history beyond slavery and the Civil Rights Movement, promoting unity and understanding instead.
Thomas Sowell has expressed concerns that progressive theories on race are condescending towards the Black community. He emphasises the importance of self-agency and condemns approaches he perceives as undermining self-belief in Black individuals. This includes practices like affirmative action in employment and higher education, where racial minorities are given preferential treatment. Sowell argues that such measures, while intended to address past injustices, may inadvertently suggest that Black individuals are incapable of succeeding without special accommodations, which could potentially affect their self-esteem and self-reliance.
Additionally, Sowell has discussed the role of the welfare state in creating dependency, particularly within the Black community. He posits that welfare policies, instead of empowering individuals, can lead to a cycle of reliance on government support, hampering personal and community development. This viewpoint aligns with his broader critique of social policies, which he believes do not adequately address economic and social disparities.
Sowell also points out that the Black community in America was making significant progress in social and economic advancements before the rise of movements centred around concepts like CRT. He suggests that the current focus on race and identity politics may overshadow or even hinder the progress and resilience demonstrated by the Black community historically.
Academics such as John McWhorter, Glenn Loury, Lloyd Vincent Kmele Foster, Coleman Hughes, and Thomas Chatterton Williams are notable figures in the Black intellectual community, often recognised as "Black heterodox thinkers." They have joined forces to contribute to a broader conversation about the African-American experience.
Their central focus revolves around what Shelby Steele terms "race fatigue." This concept refers to a feeling of existential stagnation that arises when people are predominantly viewed through the lens of past injustices, constraining them to historical narratives rather than acknowledging their agency. Many of these thinkers advocate for a vibrant multi-ethnic society, opposing divisions based on race and identity. They contend that the gradual acknowledgement of America's history of racial issues often appears insincere, merely scratching the surface without addressing the root problems.
DIET WOKE
Vocal opponents of CRT contend that it is a virtue-signalling ideology primarily championed by educated, affluent white liberals. This contrasts with the less enthusiastic response from poorer black communities. Such a disparity prompts questions about its acceptance and whether it's more a social status symbol for the elite than an effective tool for addressing racial disparities. The endorsement of "white privilege" by the chattering classes, seldom accompanied by actions reflecting genuine guilt, appears as conspicuous consumption. This stance creates a division between the affluent 'upper-whites' and the alienated working-class 'lower-whites'.
A BRIEF TIMELINE OF SLAVERY
ANCIENT SLAVERY (ANTIQUITY TO MIDDLE AGES)
Summary: Slavery in ancient civilisations was a complex system as people often became slaves due to war, debt, or being born into slavery. These civilisations, including Greece, Egypt and Rome, utilised slaves for various purposes. Ancient slavery was often brutal and dehumanising. For instance, in Egypt, large numbers of slaves, including war captives and those in debt, were used for massive construction projects like the pyramids. In Rome, gladiators, often slaves, fought to the death for public entertainment. Additionally, the castration of slaves was practised in various cultures for different purposes, including serving in harems or as eunuchs in administration.
Region of Slavery: Ancient Civilisations
Year: Antiquity to Middle Ages
Perpetrators: Various ancient civilisations, including Greece and Rome
Type of Slavery: Varied forms, often including servitude and war captives
Year Abolished: Varied by region
How it Was Abolished: Abolition was not widespread in ancient times. However, changes in economic structures, the rise of Christianity and Islam, which both brought different perspectives on slavery and the transformation of political entities contributed to its decline in various regions.
VIKING RAIDS (8TH TO 11TH CENTURIES)
Summary: During the Viking Age, Vikings from what is now Norway, Sweden, and Denmark carried out extensive raids across Europe. They often took captives, selling many into slavery. The end of this era came with the Christianisation of the Norse regions and the establishment of more stable political structures.
Region of Slavery: Europe
Year: 8th to 11th centuries
Perpetrators: Vikings
Type of Slavery: Raids and captivity
Year Abolished: Post-Christianisation of Norse regions
How it Was Abolished: Political Stability, religious conversion
SERFDOM (MEDIEVAL EUROPE)
Summary: Serfdom in Medieval Europe was a form of feudal bondage that closely resembled slavery. Serfs were legally bound to their lord's land, obligated to provide labour and pay rent. They had limited personal freedoms and were subject to the lord's control, although they held some legal rights and protections. This system tied their social and economic status to the land and their lord's will.
Type of Slavery: Serfdom
Region of Slavery: Europe
Year: High Middle Ages to mid-19th century
Perpetrators: Feudal lords
Year Abolished: Varied by region, from the Black Death onwards
How it Was Abolished: Economic changes, legislation
SLAVERY IN ARABIA AND THE CASTRATION OF BLACK SLAVES (ANCIENT TIMES TO 19TH CENTURY)
Summary: In the Arabian Peninsula, slavery existed from pre-Islamic until the 19th century. Slaves were used for various purposes, including domestic service and military. The practice of castration was notably prevalent among African slaves in this region.
Region of Slavery: Arabian Peninsula
Year: Pre-Islamic times to the 19th century
Perpetrators: Arab traders, African rulers, and tribes
Type of Slavery: Domestic service, military, administration, harems
Castration Practice: Castration was a common practice.
Year Abolished: Late 19th to early 20th century
How it Was Abolished: Royal Proclamation, Societal Reforms
Reference: Lovejoy, P. E. (2000). Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa.
COLONIAL EXPLOITATION (15TH TO 20TH CENTURIES)
Summary: The era of colonial exploitation, spanning from the 15th to the 20th centuries, represents a significant and transformative period in global history. During this time, European powers such as Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, and the Netherlands embarked on widespread colonisation of continents such as Africa, the Americas, and parts of Asia. The search for new resources, trade routes, and geopolitical dominance drove this expansion. The indigenous populations in these colonised regions were often subjugated and exploited, primarily through forced labour, land dispossession, and other forms of servitude. The colonisers frequently justified this exploitation through ideologies of racial superiority and civilisational mission, leading to significant cultural, social, and political changes in the colonised societies. The impact of this era was profound and long-lasting, contributing to enduring patterns of social and economic inequality. It laid the foundations for modern global trade and power dynamics but also for the challenges of post-colonial states, including struggles for political stability, economic development, and rectifying historical injustices.
Region of Slavery: Global
Year: 15th to 20th centuries
Year Abolished: Mid-20th century (varied by region and country)
How it Was Abolished: Decolonisation Processes, Independence Movements
Type of Slavery: Forced Labour
Perpetrators: Colonial powers
Legacy: The period of colonial rule left a legacy of economic and social inequality.
BARBARY PIRATES (16TH TO 19TH CENTURIES)
Summary: The Barbary pirates, based in North Africa, were notorious from the 16th to the 19th centuries for raiding the coasts of Europe and capturing Europeans and Africans to be enslaved. These pirates, operating from ports such as Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, targeted ships and coastal villages, leading to widespread fear and a significant impact on Mediterranean trade and life. European captives often faced harsh conditions and were sometimes forced into hard labour, such as rowing the galleys of the pirates. A particularly brutal aspect of this enslavement, especially for African captives, was castration, which was commonly practised. The aim was often to create eunuchs, who were then sold for high prices in various markets.
Region of Slavery: Mediterranean, North Africa
Year: 16th to 19th centuries
Perpetrators: Barbary pirates/privateers
Type of Slavery: Captivity and enslavement of Europeans and Africans
Year Abolished: Early 19th century
How it Was Abolished: Naval campaigns, international diplomacy
Legacy: The history of the Barbary pirates is often cited in discussions of Mediterranean slavery.
Reference: Davis, R. C. (2003). Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800
AFRICAN SLAVERY (15TH TO 19TH CENTURIES)
Summary: The Transatlantic slave trade, lasting from the 15th to the 19th centuries, was a dark and brutal period in human history, characterised by extreme suffering and inhumanity. Millions of Africans were forcibly uprooted from their homes and communities, enduring unimaginably harsh conditions. The Middle Passage, the journey across the Atlantic, was particularly notorious for its cruelty. Enslaved Africans were packed tightly into ships with little regard for their health or well-being, leading to rampant disease, starvation, and a high mortality rate. The physical and psychological torment continued upon arrival in the Americas, where they were sold and forced into gruelling labour, often in plantations under oppressive conditions. They suffered constant dehumanisation, with families frequently torn apart, and faced severe punishments and restrictions. This system of slavery, underpinned by racial ideologies, stripped them of their rights, freedom, and dignity, leaving a legacy of trauma and inequality that echoes into the present day.
Region of Slavery: Africa and the Americas
Year: 15th to 19th centuries
Type of Slavery: Transatlantic slave trade
Numbers and Scope: It is estimated that about 12.5 million Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas.
Year Abolished: Varied by country, from 1807 to 1888
Denmark-Norway: 1803 (transatlantic slave trade)
United Kingdom: 1807 (transatlantic slave trade), 1833 (slavery in most colonies)
United States: 1865 (13th Amendment abolished slavery)
France: 1794 (first abolition, reinstated in 1802), 1848 (final abolition)
Sweden: 1847 (transatlantic slave trade)
Netherlands: 1863
Portugal: 1858 (transatlantic slave trade), 1869 (in Portuguese colonies)
Spain: 1886 (in Cuba)
Brazil: 1888
How it Was Abolished: Legislation, Abolitionist Campaigns
Reference: Eltis, D., & Richardson, D. (2015). Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
HAILE SELASSIE'S ETHIOPIA (20TH CENTURY)
Summary: In Ethiopia, during the period when slavery was practised, slaves endured highly harsh conditions across various sectors. They were often subjected to forced agricultural labour on large estates, where the work was relentless and gruelling. Many slaves were also conscripted into military service, confronting the dangers of warfare without the rights or recognition granted to free individuals. Domestic servitude was prevalent, with slaves working in the homes of the elite under oppressive conditions. The living standards for slaves were generally poor, characterised by inadequate housing, limited access to healthcare, and negligible educational opportunities. Treated as property with minimal rights, slaves faced a life of subjugation, often with their families torn apart and their freedoms deeply restricted. This entrenched system of slavery contributed to a deeply stratified society in Ethiopia, exacerbating social and economic disparities.
Region of Slavery: Ethiopia
Year: 20th century
Perpetrators: Ethiopian society
Type of Slavery: Domestic service, agricultural labour, military conscription
Year Abolished: Slavery in Ethiopia was officially abolished in 1942.
How was it Abolished?: Through legislation, international treaties, and law enforcement. Haile Selassie made significant efforts to abolish slavery. The institution had been deeply entrenched in Ethiopian society for centuries, and its eradication was gradual. Reference: Henze, P. B. (2000). Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia.
MODERN SLAVERY IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND GLOBALLY (CONTEMPORARY)
Summary: Modern slavery in the contemporary era is a critical global issue, manifesting across Asia and Africa, impacting women and children disproportionately. This form of slavery includes forced labour, debt bondage, human trafficking, forced marriage, and sexual exploitation. In regions like Asia, including Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Dubai, and Southeast Asia, these practices were often driven by employers and criminal networks. Similarly, Africa faces challenges with forced labour and trafficking, exacerbated by socio-economic factors. Women and children globally face heightened risks, often being subjected to the worst forms of exploitation. Despite ongoing global efforts involving legislative reforms, international treaties, and law enforcement actions, the complete abolition of modern slavery remains a significant challenge.
Region of Slavery: Asia (including Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Dubai, and Southeast Asia), Africa, and globally
Year: Contemporary
Perpetrators: Employers, criminal networks, various parties
Type of Slavery: Forced labour, debt bondage, human trafficking, forced marriage, sexual exploitation
Year Abolished: N/A
Reference: Global Slavery Index, 2018; International Labour Organisation (2017)
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Sowell, Thomas. (1996). Slavery: A World History. Basic Books
Sowell T. Charter Schools and Their Enemies.Basic Books, New York, NY2020
Fryer, R. G., Jr. (July 2017). "An Empirical Analysis of Racial Differences in Police Use of Force."
McIntosh, P. (1989). "White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack."
(J. D. Fage (Nov. 1989), “African Societies and the Atlantic Slave Trade” No. 125
Pinker, S. (2011). The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined. Penguin Books.
McWhorter, John. "Against Reparations: Why African Americans Can Believe in America." The New Republic. The New Republic.
McWhorter, John. ( 2022) Woke Racism: How a New Religion Has Betrayed Black America Hardcover
McWhorter, John. ( 2021) https://quillette.com/2021/06/30/on-victimhood-and-culture-a-reply-to-aaron-hanna/
Loury, Glenn (1921) Critical Race Theory in U.S. Schools
Lloyd, Vincent (2023) titled "A Black Professor Trapped in Anti-Racist Hell"
Lloyd, Vincent (2023) "A Black Professor Trapped in Anti-Racist Hell"
Snopes, Aug. 7, 2019, Did Only 1.4 Percent of White Americans Own Slaves in 1860?
Marx, Karl. Das Kapital.The foundations of Marxism (1872; 1885; 1894) Various editions available.
Murray, Douglas. The Madness of Crowds: Gender, Race and Identity. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019.
Davis, R. C. (2003). Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800. Palgrave Macmillan.
Eltis, D., & Richardson, D. (2015). Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Yale University Press.
Reich, David. Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past. Pantheon Books, 2018.
Lovejoy, P. E. (2000). Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. Cambridge University Press.
Read, C. (1905) The Metaphysics of Nature. London: Murray.
Read, C. (1920) The Origin of Man and his Superstitions. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. PressDavie, M.R. (1929) The Evolution of War: A Study of its Role in Early Societies. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press
Global Slavery Index 2018, Walk Free Foundation.
UK Education and Training Statistics, UK Government.
US Census Bureau on Educational Attainment (2022), US Census Bureau
Allport, G.W. (1954). "The Nature of Prejudice." Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
Aigner, D.J. and Cain, G.G. (1977). “Statistical theories of discrimination in labour markets.” Industrial and Labor Relations Review, pp. 175-187.
What percentage of white southerners owned slaves? https://socialequity.duke.edu/fact-check-what-percentage-of-white-southerners-owned-slaves/
Jacobson, Louis (2017). Viral post gets it wrong about the extent of slavery in 1860 https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2017/aug/24/viral-image/viral-post-gets-it-wrong-extent-slavery-1860/
United States Census Bureau: Spending per pupil Increased for the Sixth Consecutive Year. United States Census Bureau: Spending per pupil Increased for Sixth Consecutive Year
BOOKS ABOUT WHITE PRIVILEGE
DiAngelo, R. (2018). "White Fragility: Why It's So Hard for White People to Talk About Racism.
Rothstein, R. (2017). "The Colour of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America.
Oluo, I. (2018). "So You Want to Talk About Race.
Kendi, I. X. (2016). "Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America.
Irving, D. (2014). "Waking Up White, and Finding Myself in the Story of Race.
Alexander, M. (2012). "The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colourblindness.
Khan, S. R. (2019). "Privilege: The Making of an Adolescent Elite at St. Paul's School.
Du Bois, W.E.B. (1903). "The Souls of Black Folk.
BOOKS AND STUDIES THAT CRITIQUE WHITE PRIVILEGE
Mac Donald, H. (2018). "The Diversity Delusion: How Race and Gender Pandering Corrupt the University and Undermine Our Culture."
Reilly, W. (2019). "Taboo: 10 Facts You Can't Talk About.
Sowell, T. (2006). "Black Rednecks and White Liberals.
Riley, J. L. (2014). "Please Stop Helping Us: How Liberals Make It Harder for Blacks to Succeed.
Hill, Jason. D. “What Do White Americans Owe Black People: Racial Justice in the Age of Post-Oppression
Altonji, J.G. and Pierret, C.R. (2001). "Employer Commitment and Statistical Discrimination." The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116.
Anwar, S. and Fang, H. (2006). "An Alternative Test of Racial Prejudice in Motor Vehicle Searches: Theory and Evidence." American Economic Review, 96(1), 127-151.
Becker, Gary S. (1957). "The Economics of Discrimination."
Becker, Gary S. (1993). "Nobel Lecture: The Economic Way of Looking at Behavior." Journal of Political Economy, 101(3), pp. 385-409.
Coate, S. and Loury, G.C. (1993a). "Will Affirmative-Action Policies Eliminate Negative Stereotypes?." The American Economic Review, pp. 1220-1240.
Coate, S. and Loury, G. (1993b). "Antidiscrimination Enforcement and the Problem of Patronization." The American Economic Review, 83(2), pp. 92-98.
Coviello, D. and Persico, N. (2015). "An Economic Analysis of Black-White Disparities in NYPD's Stop and Frisk Program." Journal of Legal Studies, 44(2), pp. 315-360.
Cose, E. (1993). "The Rage of a Privileged Class: Why Are Middle-Class Blacks Angry? Why Should America Care." New York: HarperPerennial.
Eberhardt, J.L., Goff, P.A., Purdie, V.J., and Davies, P.G. (2004). "Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(6), p. 876.
Fiske, S.T. (1998). "Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination" in D.T. Gilbert, S.T. Fiske, and G. Lindzey, eds, Handbook of Social Psychology, vol 2. New York: Oxford University Press, 357-414.
Fridell, L.A. (2004). "By the Numbers: A Guide for Analyzing Race Data from Vehicle Stops." Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
Ridgeway, Greg. (2007). "Analysis of Racial Disparities in the New York Police Department's Stop, Question, and Frisk Practices." Technical report. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA.
Fryer, R. and Jackson, M.O. (2008). “A Categorical Model of Cognition and Biased Decision Making.” The BE Journal of Theoretical Economics, 8(1).
Gelman, A., Fagan, J., and Kiss, A. (2012). “An Analysis of the New York City Police Department’s Stop-and-Frisk Policy in the Context of Claims of Racial Bias.” Journal of the American Statistical Association.
Goff, P.A., Jackson, M.C., Di Leone, B.A.L., Culotta, C.M., and DiTomasso, N.A. (2014). “The Essence of Innocence: Consequences of Dehumanizing Black Children.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4), p. 526.
Knowles, J., Persico, N., and Todd, P. (2001). “Racial Bias in Motor-Vehicle Searches: Theory and Evidence.” Journal of Political Economy, 109(1), pp. 203-29.
Miller, J., Davis, R.C., Henderson, N.J., Markovic, J., and Ortiz, C.W. (2004). "Public Opinions of the Police: The Influence of Friends, Family, and News Media." New York: Vera Institute of Justice.
Ridgeway, G. (2007). "Analysis of Racial Disparities in the New York Police Department's Stop, Question, and Frisk Practices." Rand Corporation.
Ridgeway, G., and MacDonald, J.M. (2009). "Doubly Robust Internal Benchmarking and False Discovery Rates for Detecting Racial Bias in Police Stops." Journal of the American Statistical Association, 104(486), 661-668.
