SOCIAL CHANGE
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE PROCESSES IN SOCIAL CHANGE
WHY STUDENTS STRUGGLE WITH THIS QUESTION
Students often find this topic difficult because they misunderstand what is being asked.
This is primarily an application (AO2) question. You are expected to apply your knowledge of social influence to real-world examples of social change, such as the Holocaust, the Civil Rights Movement, or women’s suffrage. Theories must be applied, not just described.
The question contains the phrase "social influence." You can answer using obedience, majority influence (conformity), or minority influence.
Minority influence is the most straightforward approach in questions with out a stem. While obedience and conformity can be used, minority influence is often the best choice because it has more historical examples and more mechanisms that can be applied in detail.
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE PROCESSES IN SOCIAL CHANGE
To develop a well-rounded answer, it is essential to consider how the theories encompassed in MINORITY INFLUENCE, OBEDIENCE, and CONFORMITY contribute to social change. This is primarily an application (AO2) question, meaning theories from social influence must be applied to real-world examples of social change.
MINORITY INFLUENCE
Key concepts that can be applied include:
CONSISTENCY, both INTRA-INDIVIDUAL (remaining consistent over time) and INTER-INDIVIDUAL (agreement among members of the minority group)
FLEXIBILITY, as minorities that are seen as rigid or dogmatic tend to be ignored, while those that show a willingness to compromise are more persuasive
COMMITMENT, including THE AUGMENTATION PRINCIPLE, where extreme dedication (e.g., personal sacrifice) strengthens the minority’s credibility
THE SNOWBALL EFFECT (Van Avermaet, 1996), where the minority gradually gains supporters until a tipping point is reached, at which the minority view becomes the majority
GROUP MEMBERSHIP (Hogg & Vaughan, 1998), as people are more likely to be influenced by those they perceive as part of their in-group rather than an out-group
SOCIAL CRYPTOMNESIA (Mugny & Perez, 1991), where society forgets the origins of the social change but accepts the new norm
OBEDIENCE
The most relevant theory is Milgram’s AGENTIC STATE, which explains how people follow authority figures in ways that can lead to social change. When applying OBEDIENCE to social change, the following processes should be considered:
SOCIALISATION, as people are taught from childhood to obey authority figures, shaping societal norms
GRADUAL COMMITMENT, where small acts of obedience make more significant acts more likely
BUFFERS, such as physical or psychological distance, which reduce personal responsibility and make obedience easier
AGENTIC SHIFT, where individuals move from an autonomous state (acting independently) to an agentic state (following orders without feeling personally responsible)
CONFORMITY
Applying CONFORMITY to social change is more difficult as fewer theoretical concepts directly explain large-scale social transformation. However, key processes include:
NORMATIVE SOCIAL INFLUENCE, where people conform to social norms to gain approval
INFORMATIONAL SOCIAL INFLUENCE, where people conform because they believe others have the correct information
COMPLIANCE, INTERNALISATION, AND IDENTIFICATION, which describes different ways people conform to majority views over time
UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL CHANGE QUESTIONS IN AQA EXAMS
Social change questions in AQA Psychology have never been more than eight marks and are most often 6 marks. This is because social change is primarily an application (AO2) question, requiring students to apply psychological theories to real-world examples rather than simply describing them.
Unlike other areas of social influence, AO3 (evaluation) is challenging to apply to social change because it would require historical analysis rather than psychological critique. This makes it different from other essay-based topics in psychology, where the evaluation of methodologies and competing theories is a primary focus.
Similarly, AO1 (knowledge and description) is not the focus of social change questions. The question is not simply asking for a definition or an outline of theories; instead, it requires students to apply their understanding of minority influence, obedience, and conformity to explain how real-world behaviours or attitudes have changed.
Most social change questions will either:
Ask you to apply theory to a social event you choose (e.g., the civil rights movement, suffrage, environmental change).
Provide a stem (a short piece of stimulus material) to which AQA expects you to apply your knowledge, such as giving up smoking, recycling, or seatbelt laws.
To understand how AQA examines this area, students should review the questions at the end of the topic in exam papers. These will typically be scenario-based questions rather than generic essay prompts, reinforcing that social change is assessed through application rather than pure theory or evaluation.
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION
MINORITY INFLUENCE
Key concepts that can be applied include:
CONSISTENCY
SUFFRAGETTES: The movement remained consistent in its demand for voting rights despite opposition. The suffragettes repeatedly engaged in protests, demonstrations, and campaigns over several decades, reinforcing their message. Even when members were arrested or force-fed in prison, they continued their activism, maintaining intra-individual consistency (sticking to their message over time) and inter-individual consistency (agreement among members).
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT: Civil rights activists, particularly Martin Luther King Jr. and his supporters, consistently advocated for racial equality through non-violent resistance. They maintained a steady message of peaceful protest, legal challenges, and political activism, increasing their influence over time.
FLEXIBILITY
SUFFRAGETTES: Initially, the movement was militant and engaged in aggressive tactics such as arson and property damage. However, as opposition increased, some suffragettes (and particularly the suffragists) adapted their approach by negotiating with politicians and working within legal frameworks. This flexibility made their movement more acceptable to the broader population.
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT: The leaders of the civil rights movement, notably Martin Luther King Jr., emphasised peaceful protest and dialogue rather than violent resistance. The movement appeared reasonable and persuasive by demonstrating a willingness to engage in discussions with politicians and government officials rather than radical and extreme.
COMMITMENT (THE AUGMENTATION PRINCIPLE)
SUFFRAGETTES: Many suffragettes endured imprisonment, hunger strikes, and force-feeding to demonstrate their commitment to their cause. These extreme sacrifices made their movement more credible, proving they were willing to suffer for their beliefs. This convinced some public members that women’s voting rights were a legitimate issue.
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT: Civil rights activists risked their lives by protesting in deeply racist areas of the United States. Many activists, including Martin Luther King Jr., were arrested, beaten, and even assassinated, reinforcing the perception that they genuinely believed in their cause. The brutal treatment of activists, such as the attacks on peaceful marchers in Selma, increased public sympathy and support for the movement.
THE SNOWBALL EFFECT (VAN AVERMAET, 1996)
SUFFRAGETTES: Initially, only a small group of women fought for the right to vote, but as their message spread, more people (including some men) began supporting them. Eventually, their influence reached a tipping point, leading to the Representation of the People Act (1918), which granted voting rights to some women. This later expanded to full voting rights in 1928.
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT: At first, civil rights activists were a minority, but as more people joined protests and civil rights laws were passed, public support snowballed. The movement reached a critical mass, leading to the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965), which ended segregation and discrimination in voting.
GROUP MEMBERSHIP (HOGG & VAUGHAN, 1998)
SUFFRAGETTES: Women alone could not pass voting legislation, so support from male politicians and the general public was essential. Over time, some men in positions of power (e.g., politicians and journalists) began advocating for women’s rights. As more influential figures supported the cause, the movement gained legitimacy.
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT: White Americans were more likely to support civil rights when other white individuals publicly endorsed the movement. Many white politicians, activists, and religious leaders joined civil rights protests, making the cause seem more acceptable to the white majority, which controlled policy and legislation.
SOCIAL CRYPTOMNESIA (MUGNY & PEREZ, 1991)
SUFFRAGETTES: Today, most people take women’s voting rights for granted and do not remember how radical the suffragettes were perceived at the time. The extreme protests and sacrifices of the movement are often forgotten, while the idea that women should vote is seen as evident.
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT: In modern society, racial equality is widely accepted, but many people do not remember how deeply embedded racism was before the civil rights movement. The struggle, sacrifices, and violence faced by activists are often overlooked, with the focus instead on the result—legal and social equality.
OBEDIENCE
The most relevant theory is Milgram’s agentic state, which explains how people follow authority figures in ways that can lead to social change. When applying obedience to social change, the following processes should be considered:
SOCIALISATION
THE HOLOCAUST: From childhood, German citizens were socialised to respect authority and follow orders without question. The education system, propaganda, and military training reinforced obedience to Nazi leadership, making it easier for ordinary people to comply with extreme policies without resisting.
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN SCHOOLS: In many societies, children were taught from an early age to obey teachers without question, reinforcing the idea that punishment was a normal and acceptable response to disobedience. Corporal punishment was seen as a legitimate tool of discipline, encouraging strict obedience to school authorities.
GRADUAL COMMITMENT
THE HOLOCAUST: The persecution of Jewish people escalated in stages. Initially, discrimination involved segregation and propaganda, followed by forced labour and ghettos, and eventually mass executions in concentration camps. Each small act of compliance made it psychologically easier for individuals to participate in more extreme acts, as they had already justified their previous actions.
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN SCHOOLS: A student might begin by accepting small punishments, such as writing lines or standing in a corner. Over time, these punishments escalated to physical beatings with rulers or canes. Each stage of obedience normalised more extreme punishments, making students less likely to resist or question authority.
BUFFERS
THE HOLOCAUST: Many Nazi officers did not directly kill people but worked in administrative roles or operated gas chambers remotely. The physical and psychological distance from their victims reduced personal responsibility, making it easier to obey orders. Documents and bureaucracy created an illusion that they were simply following procedures rather than committing atrocities.
AGENTIC SHIFT
THE HOLOCAUST: Many Nazis and soldiers did not see themselves as personally responsible for the deaths they caused. Instead, they shifted from an autonomous state (acting on personal values) to an agentic state (following orders). They viewed their actions as simply carrying out government policy rather than making moral decisions. This was evident in the Nuremberg Trials, where many claimed they were "just following orders."
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN SCHOOLS: Teachers who carried out corporal punishment often did not see themselves as responsible for harming children. Instead, they saw themselves as following the school system's discipline rules, acting under authority rather than making personal moral choices. Many justified punishments by claiming they were simply enforcing school policies rather than acting independently.
CONFORMITY (MAJORITY INFLUENCE)
Conformity occurs when individuals change their behaviour or beliefs to fit in with a majority group. This can happen due to normative social influence (NSI), where people conform to be liked or accepted, or informational social influence (ISI), where people conform because they believe others have more knowledge.
NORMATIVE SOCIAL INFLUENCE (NSI) AND COMPLIANCE
WEARING NIKE AIR TRAINERS BECAUSE IT'S A TREND: Many people wear Nike Air trainers not because they personally prefer them, but because they are fashionable and widely accepted in social circles. This is an example of NSI, as individuals conform to the trend to avoid looking out of place or being judged. However, this is likely compliance, as the individual may only wear them in public but not necessarily prefer them in private.
NORMATIVE SOCIAL INFLUENCE (NSI) AND IDENTIFICATION
CHEERING FOR ARSENAL AT A MATCH EVEN THOUGH YOU SUPPORT CHELSEA: If a Chelsea fan goes to a football match with an Arsenal-supporting friend and cheers for Arsenal, this is an example of identification. The person conforms temporarily to fit in with their friend and the surrounding Arsenal fans, even though they do not actually support Arsenal. This behaviour is influenced by NSI, as they want to feel part of the group and avoid standing out.
INFORMATIONAL SOCIAL INFLUENCE (ISI) AND INTERNALISATION
COPYING SOMEONE IN AN UPSCALE RESTAURANT BECAUSE YOU ARE UNSURE OF SOCIAL ETIQUETTE: If someone is dining in a formal, high-end restaurant where multiple types of cutlery are used (e.g., amuse-bouche spoons, separate knives and forks for each course) and they are uncertain about which utensils to use, they might observe and copy others at the table. This is an example of ISI, as the individual assumes others have more knowledge and follows their lead.
NOT SMOKING BEFORE A SPEECH OR FOLLOWING OTHER SOCIAL ETIQUETTE RULES: In situations like formal dining or speeches, people might adopt certain behaviours, such as not smoking before a toast, keeping elbows off the table, or removing hats indoors, because they see others doing it and assume this is the correct behaviour. If they later internalise these rules and follow them in future settings, this would be an example of internalisation, as they have genuinely changed their beliefs about what is appropriate.
SOCIAL CHANGE EXAM QUESTIONS
1. USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SOCIAL CHANGE, EXPLAIN WHY RECYCLING IS NOW BEHAVIOUR CARRIED OUT BY A MAJORITY OF PEOPLE IN THIS COUNTRY. (4 MARKS)
MARK SCHEME:
Minority influence has contributed to social change through consistency, flexibility, and commitment, leading to the majority adopting recycling as a social norm.
The snowball effect (Van Avermaet, 1996) explains how small-scale recycling initiatives gained wider support, reaching a tipping point where recycling became mainstream.
Social cryptomnesia (Mugny & Perez, 1991) suggests people have forgotten the origins of the change but now accept recycling as normal.
Obedience plays a role, as government policies and laws requiring recycling have led to compliance, which then became an accepted behaviour.
Normative social influence (NSI) explains how people recycle to fit in with social norms and avoid disapproval.
Informational social influence (ISI) explains how expert advice on environmental consequences has led to changes in recycling behaviour.
EXAMINERS' COMMENTS:
Stronger responses clearly applied social influence processes, especially NSI, ISI, and minority influence, to explain recycling behaviour.
Some answers focused too much on government rules without linking them to social influence theories.
Weaker responses stated that recycling is encouraged but did not explain the psychological mechanisms behind its widespread adoption.
2. A SMALL ENVIRONMENTAL GROUP WANTS TO ENCOURAGE PEOPLE TO USE PUBLIC TRANSPORT OR BICYCLES INSTEAD OF USING THEIR CARS. USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE ROLE OF MINORITY INFLUENCE IN SOCIAL CHANGE, WHAT ADVICE WOULD YOU GIVE THE ENVIRONMENTAL GROUP? (6 MARKS)
MARK SCHEME:
The group should demonstrate consistency, ensuring their message is clear and persistent over time.
They should show commitment, possibly through personal sacrifice (e.g., group members not using cars themselves), demonstrating the augmentation principle to increase credibility.
Flexibility is important; they should not appear dogmatic but rather acknowledge different perspectives and offer practical alternatives.
The snowball effect explains how their influence will gradually spread if a few people start using public transport and others follow.
Group membership (Hogg & Vaughan, 1998) is key—if people see members of their social group adopting the behaviour, they will be more likely to follow.
Social cryptomnesia may occur, where eventually, society forgets the origins of the movement but adopts the behaviour as the norm.
EXAMINERS' COMMENTS:
High-scoring answers applied specific processes of minority influence (e.g., consistency, commitment, and flexibility) to the scenario.
Weaker responses gave general suggestions (e.g., "run a campaign") without linking them to social change theories.
3. EXPLAIN HOW SOCIAL INFLUENCE RESEARCH CAN BE USED TO BRING ABOUT SOCIAL CHANGE, SUCH AS ENCOURAGING PEOPLE TO EAT HEALTHILY. (4 MARKS)
MARK SCHEME:
Social norms approach: If people perceive that eating healthily is the social norm, they are more likely to conform.
Minority influence: A small group consistently promoting healthy eating can influence the majority over time.
Normative social influence (NSI): People eat healthily to gain social approval or avoid disapproval.
Informational social influence (ISI): People change their diet due to new health-related information.
Obedience to authority: Government guidelines and expert advice influence public behaviour.
EXAMINERS' COMMENTS:
Stronger answers linked social influence theories directly to healthy eating.
Some responses focused on health benefits rather than explaining social influence mechanisms.
4. DISCUSS THE ROLE OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE PROCESSES IN SOCIAL CHANGE. (16 MARKS)
MARK SCHEME:
AO1 (KNOWLEDGE)
Social change begins when a minority influences the majority through consistency, commitment, and flexibility.
The augmentation principle states that extreme dedication (e.g., personal risk or sacrifice) strengthens the credibility of the minority.
The snowball effect (Van Avermaet, 1996) describes how a small movement gradually gains support until it becomes the majority.
Social cryptomnesia (Mugny & Perez, 1991) occurs when people accept social change but forget it originated from a minority.
Obedience to authority can drive social change when new laws enforce behaviours, increasing compliance. Milgram’s agentic state explains why people obey orders even when they conflict with personal beliefs.
Conformity maintains social change as people adopt new norms through normative and informational social influence.
AO2 (APPLICATION)
The suffrage movement used consistency (repeated protests), commitment (hunger strikes, imprisonment), and flexibility (negotiation with lawmakers), eventually leading to women's voting rights.
Civil rights movements relied on minority influence and obedience—non-violent protests gained public attention, and legal changes reinforced compliance.
Environmental campaigns show how minority influence leads to public policy changes (e.g., recycling laws and climate action).
AO3 (EVALUATION)
Moscovici et al. (1969) provide research support for minority influence, showing a consistent minority can influence the majority. However, the artificial nature of lab studies limits real-world applicability.
Social change is slow, often taking decades rather than the short timescales studied in experiments.
Majorities resist minority influence, especially if the minority is seen as deviant or radical.
Conformity research (Asch, 1951) supports the idea that once new norms are established, people conform to fit in.
Obedience research (Milgram, 1963) highlights the role of authority figures in enforcing social change.
EXAMINERS' COMMENTS:
High-scoring answers explained multiple social influence processes (minority influence, obedience, and conformity) and linked them to real-world examples.
Some answers focused only on minority influence, missing other key social influence processes.
Lower-level responses described social change without explicitly linking it to psychological theories.
OTHER QUESTIONS
Read the item and then answer the question that follows. The following article appeared in a newspaper: Britain’s views on homosexuality – the biggest social change of the last 30 years? In the UK, views on homosexuality have changed significantly in recent times. Thirty years ago, almost two-thirds of the British public opposed same-sex relationships because they were ‘morally wrong’. These days, homosexuality is accepted, and the majority of British people support recent changes to the laws on gay marriage and adoption.
With reference to the article above, explain how social influence leads to social change. (Total six marks)
Social influence research helps us to understand how it is possible to change people’s behaviour: for example, understanding how to persuade people to eat more healthily.
With reference to this example of social change, explain how psychology might affect the economy.
A small environmental group wants to encourage people to use public transport or bicycles instead of using their cars. Using your knowledge of the role of minority influence in social change, what advice would you give the environmental group?
Explain how social influence research helps us to understand social change.
Mike and his grandfather were having a conversation about recycling. Mike explained that he always puts empty cans and plastic bottles in one box and newspapers and cardboard in another box and that his mum takes these to be recycled once a week. His grandfather said that when he was Mike’s age, people did not recycle. Mike said everyone in his street recycles and has a big box at school, especially for recycling.
Using your knowledge of the psychology of social change, explain why recycling is now behaviour carried out by a majority of people in this country.
