CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
EDEXCEL SPECIFICATION:
5.5 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION: CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:
A practical exercise involving content analysis to explore attitudes towards schizophrenia and mental health.
Compare at least two sources (e.g., newspapers, interviews) to examine how attitudes towards schizophrenia are portrayed and how they may differ across contexts
PRACTICAL EXERCISE: CONTENT ANALYSIS ON ATTITUDES TOWARDS SCHIZOPHRENIA
This guide focuses solely on schizophrenia in line with the Pearson Edexcel specification, providing a structured summary for effective teaching and study.
ANALYSING MEDIA REPRESENTATIONS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA
Schizophrenia and mental health are portrayed across various media sources. By conducting a content analysis, students will better understand differences in attitudes and representations and how these influence public perceptions and stigma.
OBJECTIVES
Compare how schizophrenia is portrayed in at least two different sources.
Examine potential biases, stereotypes, and stigma in representations.
Analyse how language and framing of mental health topics vary across contexts.
STEP ONE: WHAT IS SCHIZOPHRENIA?
Before starting a content analysis of schizophrenia, it is crucial to refresh your understanding of what schizophrenia truly is—and what it is not—focusing on its symptoms and demographics. This foundational knowledge is essential for identifying inaccurate or misleading media representations. Here are some key reminders to guide your analysis
SYMPTOMATOLGY
POSITIVE SYMPTOMS
Delusions: Fixed, false beliefs, often paranoid in nature.
Hallucinations: Primarily auditory (e.g., hearing voices). Visual hallucinations are far less common.
Disorganised Thinking and Speech: Difficulty organising thoughts or communicating coherently.
NEGATIVE SYMTOMS
Flat Affect: Limited emotional expression.
Avolition: Lack of motivation to initiate or sustain activities.
Alogia: Poverty of speech or minimal verbal communication.
Anhedonia: Reduced ability to experience pleasure.
COGNITIVE SYMPTOMS (IMAIRMENTS AND THINKING AND LANGUAGE)
Difficulty with memory, attention, and problem-solving.
Reduced ability to plan or execute tasks effectively.
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
GENDER DISTRIBUTION: Schizophrenia affects men and women almost equally.
Men may have an earlier onset (late teens to early 20s), while women typically develop symptoms later (late 30s to early 40s).
ETHNIC AND RACIAL DISTRIBUTIONS
Schizophrenia occurs across all racial and ethnic groups.
Studies indicate higher rates of diagnosis among Black and minority ethnic groups, particularly in urban areas, though this may partly reflect systemic biases in healthcare.
AGE OF ONSET
Schizophrenia most commonly emerges between the ages of 16 and 30, with rare cases of childhood-onset schizophrenia.
SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS
Individuals with schizophrenia often experience downward social drift due to the disabling effects of the condition, leading to overrepresentation in lower socioeconomic groups.
PERCENTAGES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA-RELATED BEHAVIOURS
Here are accurate statistics reflecting the percentages of individuals with schizophrenia who engage in violence, substance abuse, suicide, or other behaviours, based on research and clinical studies:
VIOLENCE
The vast majority of individuals with schizophrenia (approximately 90%) are non-violent.
Without comorbid substance use, the risk of violence is similar to the general population.
Individuals with schizophrenia are not more likely to commit non-violent crimes than the general population.
Less than 1% of individuals with schizophrenia commit homicide/murder.
When homicides occur, they are often associated with untreated psychosis or substance use.
RISK FACTORS FOR VIOLENCE
Comorbid substance abuse.
History of violence.
Non-adherence to treatment.
Paranoid delusions involving perceived threats.
Severe untreated symptoms.
SUBSTANCE ABUSE
Approximately 50% of individuals with schizophrenia have a co-occurring substance use disorder.
The most common substances are alcohol, cigarettes/vaping and cannabis.
Substance use significantly increases the risk of violence and worsens symptom severity.
SELF-HARM AND SUICIDE
Around 20–40% of individuals with schizophrenia attempt suicide at least once in their lifetime.
An estimated 10–13% of individuals with schizophrenia die by suicide, a rate significantly higher than the general population.
Risk Factors for Suicide:
Male gender.
Younger age.
High levels of education or premorbid functioning.
Insight into illness (can increase feelings of hopelessness).
VICTIMISATION
Victims of Violence:
People with schizophrenia are 14 times more likely to be victims of violence than perpetrators.
Rates of victimisation are higher due to social vulnerability and stigma
STEP TWO: BACKGROUND READING
WHY BACKGROUND READING MATTERS
Before starting your content analysis, it’s essential to do background reading. Here’s why:
Understand the Topic: Familiarise yourself with what schizophrenia is (and isn’t) to spot inaccuracies in media representations.
Develop Themes: Research helps you identify key patterns like symptom portrayal or stereotypes, guiding your analysis.
Think Critically: Reading studies teaches you how to evaluate whether portrayals align with clinical realities or perpetuate stigma.
Learn Methods: Background research shows how others have structured their analyses and helps you avoid common mistakes.
Ensure Accuracy: Grounding your analysis in research makes your findings credible and insightful.
Start with the provided sources—they’ll set you on the right path
PORTRAYALS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA BY ENTERTAINMENT MEDIA: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF CONTEMPORARY MOVIES (PATRICIA R. OWEN, PH.D).
Although the following research leans more towards discourse analysis it is an excellent study and very quickly identify common misconceptions about schizophrenia.
OBJECTIVES
Critics of entertainment media have indicated that cinematic depictions of schizophrenia are stereotypic and characterised by misinformation about symptoms, causes, and treatment. The pervasiveness and nature of misinformation are difficult to ascertain because of the lack of empirically based studies of movies portraying schizophrenia.
This study analysed portrayals of schizophrenia in contemporary movies to ascertain the prevalence of stereotypes and misinformation about schizophrenia.
KEY FINDINGS
DEMOGRAPHIC OF CHARACTERISTICS
A total of 42 characters from 41 movies were analysed.
79% were male, and 95% were Caucasian, which does not reflect the actual demographic distribution of schizophrenia.
SYMPTOM PORTRAYAL
Positive symptoms (e.g., delusions, auditory and visual hallucinations) dominated portrayals.
Negative symptoms (e.g., flat affect, avolition) were rarely depicted, despite being common in real-life cases.
Visual hallucinations were inaccurately overrepresented compared to auditory hallucinations. Also, the subtypes are now obsolete in DSM V including any references to the following: Catatonic Behaviour:, e.g., immobility.
VIOLENCE AND SELF HARM
83% of characters exhibited violent behaviours, and 31% were involved in homicidal actions.
69% displayed self-harming behaviours, with 24% committing suicide.
This reinforces harmful stereotypes of people with schizophrenia as dangerous.
CAUSATION
The cause of schizophrenia was rarely discussed.
About 25% of movies suggested traumatic life events as the cause, which oversimplifies the complex aetiology of schizophrenia.
TREATMENT
Psychotropic medications were the most depicted form of treatment.
Other interventions, such as psychotherapy or group therapy, were minimally portrayed.
The idea that "love cures schizophrenia" was present in 24% of movies but is not based on scientific evidence.
KEY CONCERNS
NEGATIVE STEROTYPES
Movies often reinforce the "homicidal maniac" trope, associating schizophrenia with violence and unpredictability.
Some films link schizophrenia with paranormal abilities, adding to the stigma.
MISINFORMATION
Symptoms and causes are frequently misrepresented.
Movies ignore the biological basis of schizophrenia and emphasize outdated or fictional cures (e.g., love or traumatic healing).
UNDERREPRESENTATION
Non-Caucasian individuals and females are underrepresented, which may distort public understanding of the disorder.
STIGMA REINFORCEMENT
These portrayals contribute to public fears and discrimination against people with schizophrenia.
The stigma perpetuated by movies can impact how individuals with schizophrenia are treated in society.
IMPLICATIONS
The study highlights the need for accurate media portrayals of schizophrenia to reduce stigma and promote understanding. Movies that depict schizophrenia realistically—such as The Soloist or Angel Baby—can help educate audiences and foster empathy.
UK MEDIA DEPICTIONS
"Media analysis of UK national newspapers (2000–2015)"
Found individuals with schizophrenia frequently associated with violence and unpredictability. Terms like "schizophrenic" often appeared alongside verbs such as "attack," "stab," and "murder," reinforcing harmful stereotypes.
(Lancaster University CASService)"Newspaper coverage of mental illness in the UK, 1992–2008"
Found overall reductions in negative articles about mental illness, but portrayals of schizophrenia remained linked to danger and violence.
(BMC Public Health)
USA MEDIA DEPICTIONS
"Portrayals of Schizophrenia by Entertainment Media: A Content Analysis of Contemporary Movies"
Analysed 41 films and found that schizophrenic characters frequently displayed violent behaviour, with nearly one-third exhibiting homicidal tendencies.
(Psychiatry Online)General Depictions in Media:
US media, like UK media, often portrays schizophrenia as synonymous with unpredictability and violence.
IMPACT OF MEDIA REPRESENTATIONS
Public Understanding:
Misrepresentations foster public misunderstanding and fear, leading to social isolation and discrimination.Internalised Stigma:
Individuals with schizophrenia may internalise stigma from negative portrayals, deterring them from seeking treatment.
EFFORTS TOWARD CHANGE
The UK's "Time to Change" campaign collaborates with media professionals to promote accurate and empathetic portrayals of mental health conditions.
(Cambridge University Press)Anti-stigma interventions targeting media professionals have shown promise in reducing harmful stereotypes.
(Oxford Academic)
STEP THREE: CHOOSE YOUR MEDIUM
You may choose any two different sources that present information or opinions about schizophrenia, such as:
Newspaper Articles
Interviews
Social Media Posts (e.g., Instagram)
Magazine Features
STEP FOUR: IDENTIFY DIFFERENT LEVELS OF YOUR CHOSEN MEDIUM
After selecting your medium, identify two sources that offer contrasting contexts. Examples include:
Newspaper Articles:
Compare a tabloid (e.g., The Sun) with a broadsheet (e.g., The Guardian).Interviews
Contrast a patient’s story with an expert’s opinion.Social Media Posts:
Examine a public health campaign versus user-generated content.Magazine Features:
Compare an article from a health magazine to one from an entertainment magazine.
STEP FIVE: DEFINE THEMES AND CATEGORIES
Use the following themes and categories to guide your analysis:
1. LANGUAGE USED
How is schizophrenia described? Examples: "sufferer," "dangerous," or "person with schizophrenia."
Does the language promote empathy or perpetuate stigma?
2. SYMPTOMS PORTRAYED
Are positive symptoms (e.g., delusions, hallucinations) emphasised?
Are negative symptoms (e.g., flat affect, withdrawal) ignored?
Are visual hallucinations—much less common in schizophrenia—overrepresented? Is Schizophrenia depicted as multiple personality disorder (e.g., split personality).
3. ATTRIBUTIONS OF CAUSE
What causes are suggested?
Biological: Genetics or brain chemistry.
Nurture/Social: Trauma, dysfunctional families, societal pressures.
4. TREATMENT AND RECOVERY
Is the focus on medical treatments (e.g., medication, ECT, psycho surgery/lobotomies)?
Are alternative approaches highlighted (e.g., CBT, family therapy, psychoanalysis )?
Are unrealistic "cures" suggested (e.g., love or catharsis)?
5. DEMOGRAPHICS OF CHARACTERS
Who is portrayed with schizophrenia? Consider gender, ethnicity, and age.
6. VIOLENCE AND SELF-HARM
Are individuals depicted as violent or dangerous?
Examples: Homicidal, unpredictable, or aggressive behaviour.
Are self-harming behaviours emphasised?
Examples: Suicide, drug abuse, or other destructive acts.
STEP FIVE: DEFINING THEMES AND CATEGORIES
To analyse the portrayal of schizophrenia effectively, you must identify key themes. These themes will guide your content analysis and help you categorise and evaluate the sources. Examples of key themes include:
LANGUAGE USED TO DESCRIBE SCHIZOPHRENIA
Examine how individuals with schizophrenia are referred to. For example:Terms such as "sufferer," "dangerous," or "crazy" may suggest negative portrayals.
Neutral or person-first language, like "person with schizophrenia," may reflect more balanced or empathetic representations.
SYMPTOMS PORTRAYED
Identify which symptoms are emphasised. For instance:Positive symptoms: delusions, auditory hallucinations, or disorganised thinking.
Negative symptoms: flat affect, avolition, or alogia.
Incorrect symptoms: misconceptions such as "split personality" or the frequent depiction of visual hallucinations (rare in real life).
ATTRIBUTIONS OF CAUSE
Consider how the source explains the origins of schizophrenia. Possible causes include:Biological: genetic predispositions, chemical imbalances.
Social: traumatic events, dysfunctional families, societal pressures.
Spiritual or supernatural: possession, curses, or other paranormal attributions.
FOCUS ON SYMPTOMS
Determine whether the portrayal highlights specific aspects of the condition, such as:Delusions, violence, unpredictability, or bizarre behaviours.
Stigma-related themes like danger and fear versus neutral or recovery-focused narratives.
CAUSATION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR TREATMENT OR RECOVERY
Analyse the portrayal of treatment approaches. These could include:Medication-focused solutions such as antipsychotics.
Holistic approaches like CBT, family therapy, or lifestyle changes.
Unrealistic notions, such as "love cures schizophrenia" or supernatural interventions.
DEMOGRAPHICS OF CHARACTERS
Evaluate who is represented as having schizophrenia, including:Gender (males, females, non-binary individuals).
Age (teenagers, adults, elderly individuals).
Ethnicity (e.g., Caucasian, Black, Asian, or other ethnicities).
VIOLENCE AND SELF-HARM
Assess whether characters with schizophrenia are portrayed as violent or as self-harmers. Consider:Violence towards others: physical aggression, murder, or erratic behaviour.
Self-harm behaviours: suicide ideation, drug abuse, or self-inflicted injuries.
Non-violent or non-harming portrayals.
Broadsheet Newspapers
The Times published an article titled "Katie Melua: I talk about my breakdown to destigmatise the issue" on 26 November 2024. In this piece, singer Katie Melua discusses her mental health struggles, including experiences of psychotic symptoms, aiming to destigmatise mental health issues. Another article from The Times, "Heir to pie fortune guilty of best friend's murder", published on 22 November 2024, covers the case of Dylan Thomas, who was diagnosed with schizophrenia and found guilty of murdering his best friend, highlighting the intersection of mental health and criminal behaviour.
The Telegraph featured "Almost a third of schizophrenia cases in young men triggered by cannabis use, study suggests" on 4 May 2023. This article discusses research linking cannabis use to an increased risk of developing schizophrenia in young men. On 3 April 2023, The Telegraph also reviewed Jonathan Rosen's book in "The Best Minds, Jonathan Rosen review: psychosis vs showbiz", exploring the tragic story of Michael Laudor, a Yale graduate with schizophrenia.
Tabloid Newspapers
The Sun published "Inside I'm A Celeb star Tulisa's turbulent relationship with her mum Anne Byrne after tough upbringing" on 23 November 2024, detailing Tulisa Contostavlos's experiences growing up with her mother, who was diagnosed with schizoaffective disorder. Another piece from August 2024, "Warning as mental health crisis means public are at risk from more killers like Valdo Calocane", highlights concerns about the mental health system following incidents involving individuals with schizophrenia.
The Daily Mail ran an article titled "‘Chemical cosh’ of powerful drugs still routinely used to knock out dementia patients in care homes" on 21 September 2016. This piece discusses the continued use of antipsychotic drugs in care homes, raising concerns about their impact on patients.
More articles:
Broadsheet Newspapers:
The Independent:
"Schizophrenia: the most misunderstood mental illness?" (Published: June 2014)
This article explores the misconceptions surrounding schizophrenia and emphasizes the need for a nuanced understanding of the condition.
"Why the concept of schizophrenia is coming to an end" (Published: September 2017)
The piece discusses evolving perspectives on schizophrenia, suggesting that the traditional concept may be outdated.
"Schizophrenia affects your body, not just your brain – new study" (Published: May 2018)
This article highlights research indicating that schizophrenia impacts physical health, not just mental processes.
"New schizophrenia drug ‘could change the lives of millions of people’" (Published: September 2024)
The article reports on the approval of a new drug by the US Food and Drug Administration, offering a novel approach to treating schizophrenia.
"Genes link bipolar, schizophrenia, once thought unrelated" (Published: October 2022)
This piece discusses research findings that reveal genetic links between bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.
The Guardian:
"Schizophrenia: the voices in my head" (Published: July 2015)
A personal account detailing the experience of living with schizophrenia and the challenges of managing auditory hallucinations.
"Cannabis use and risk of psychosis: the debate continues" (Published: March 2019)
An exploration of the ongoing debate regarding the relationship between cannabis use and the development of psychotic disorders like schizophrenia.
"Schizophrenia breakthrough as study reveals link to immune system" (Published: January 2016)
This article reports on a study that identifies a connection between the immune system and the development of schizophrenia.
The Telegraph:
"Schizophrenia: new study finds 80 genes that raise risk" (Published: July 2014)
The piece discusses a study that identifies numerous genes associated with an increased risk of developing schizophrenia.
"Virtual reality therapy could help treat schizophrenia" (Published: July 2018)
An article exploring the potential of virtual reality therapy as a treatment for individuals with schizophrenia.
Tabloid Newspapers:
The Sun:
"My son’s schizophrenia turned him into a stranger" (Published: August 2017)
A mother's account of her son's battle with schizophrenia and the impact on their family life.
"Cannabis drove me to the brink of schizophrenia" (Published: June 2018)
A personal story highlighting the potential link between cannabis use and the onset of schizophrenia symptoms.
Daily Mail:
"Schizophrenia breakthrough as scientists discover 100 genes that raise risk" (Published: July 2014)
The article reports on a significant study identifying numerous genes linked to an increased risk of schizophrenia.
"How a simple blood test could diagnose schizophrenia" (Published: February 2015)
This piece discusses the development of a blood test that may aid in the diagnosis of schizophrenia.
Daily Mirror:
"I was diagnosed with schizophrenia at 20 – this is what it’s like" (Published: May 2019)
A first-person account detailing the challenges and experiences of living with schizophrenia from a young age.
"Schizophrenia nearly destroyed my life – but now I’m in control" (Published: October 2016)
An individual's journey of overcoming the challenges posed by schizophrenia and regaining control over their life.
STEP SIX:CODING THE CONTENT
Once themes have been established, the next step is to code the content systematically. This ensures you can organise your findings effectively.
HIGHLIGHT INSTANCES OF EACH THEME
Carefully read or watch each source and mark occurrences of relevant themes.CREATE A CODING SYSTEM
Use abbreviations to categorise different aspects of the portrayal. For example:"N" for negative portrayal.
"P" for positive portrayal.
"T" for focus on treatment.
QUANTITATIVE CODING
Count the frequency of specific words, phrases, or themes (e.g., the number of times a character is described as "dangerous").QUALITATIVE CODING
Record specific examples of language, imagery, or scenes that reflect a theme (e.g., a film showing a person with schizophrenia engaging in violent behaviour).
STEP SEVEN: ANALYSING THE DATA
Compare the portrayal of schizophrenia across your chosen sources by examining patterns and differences.
COMPARE FREQUENCIES
For example, a tabloid newspaper might use sensationalist terms like "dangerous schizophrenic" more frequently than a health magazine, which might favour neutral or positive language.IDENTIFY DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES
Do both sources focus on violence and danger, or does one explore recovery and empathy?
Are symptoms accurately portrayed in one source but misrepresented in another?
CONSIDER THE TARGET AUDIENCE
The framing of schizophrenia often reflects the source’s intended audience. For instance:A tabloid article may aim to shock or entertain.
A professional journal may provide a clinical or educational perspective.
STEP EIGHT: DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Based on your analysis, summarise the implications of the findings:
EFFECTS ON PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS
Consider how these portrayals might shape societal attitudes towards schizophrenia. For example:Sensationalist portrayals could reinforce fear, stigma, and discrimination.
Empathetic or recovery-focused portrayals might normalise mental health discussions.
IMPACT ON INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA
Reflect on how these portrayals could affect those living with the condition. For example:Negative depictions might discourage individuals from seeking help.
Balanced portrayals could help reduce stigma and encourage treatment.
EXAMPLE CONCLUSION
"The tabloid newspaper often sensationalises schizophrenia, using terms like 'dangerous' and 'crazy,' which contribute to public fear and stigma. In contrast, the health magazine presents a more balanced view, focusing on symptoms, causes, and recovery, offering a more constructive perspective on mental health."
STEP NINE: EXAMPLE OF A CODING FRAME
LANGUAGE USED
DESCRIPTIVE TERMS
"Schizophrenic" (as a label): [ ]
Person-first language (e.g., "person with schizophrenia," "individual diagnosed with schizophrenia"): [ ]
Negative descriptors:
Dangerous: [ ] (e.g., "threatening," "unpredictable," "aggressive")
Mentally unstable: [ ] (e.g., "unstable," "crazy," "insane")
Derogatory terms: [ ] (e.g., "psycho," "mad," "lunatic")
Neutral descriptors:
Medical terms: [ ] (e.g., "mental health condition," "psychosis")
Objective language: [ ] (e.g., "diagnosed with schizophrenia")
1.2 TONE
Sensationalist: [ ]
Exaggerative language (e.g., "shocking," "horrifying")
Fear-inducing narratives (e.g., "killer on the loose")
Factual: [ ]
Reporting with data or expert quotes (e.g., "studies show," "research indicates")
Empathetic: [ ]
Humanised narratives (e.g., "living with schizophrenia," "the daily struggles of…")
2. SYMPTOMS PORTRAYED
2.1 POSITIVE SYMPTOMS (OVEREMPHASISED IN MEDIA)
Delusions: [ ]
Synonyms: "false beliefs," "paranoid thoughts," "distorted reality"
Auditory hallucinations: [ ]
Synonyms: "hearing voices," "auditory distortions"
Visual hallucinations: [ ]
(Note: Less common in real life but often inaccurately depicted.)
Synonyms: "seeing things that aren't there," "visions"
Disorganised behaviour: [ ]
Synonyms: "erratic actions," "chaotic behaviour"
2.2 NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS (UNDERREPRESENTED IN MEDIA)
Flat affect: [ ]
Synonyms: "emotionless," "blank expression"
Avolition: [ ]
Synonyms: "lack of motivation," "difficulty initiating actions"
Alogia: [ ]
Synonyms: "poverty of speech," "limited verbal response"
2.3 INACCURATE SYMPTOMS
Split personality (incorrectly associated): [ ]
Synonyms: "dual personalities," "multiple personalities"
Other disorders mislabelled as schizophrenia: [ ]
Examples: Dissociative Identity Disorder, PTSD
3. ATTRIBUTIONS OF CAUSE
3.1 STATED CAUSES
Biological: [ ]
Synonyms: "genetic predisposition," "brain disorder," "chemical imbalance"
Social: [ ]
Synonyms: "trauma," "abuse," "dysfunctional upbringing"
Societal pressures: [ ]
Synonyms: "stigma," "lack of support," "isolation"
Spiritual/paranormal: [ ]
Synonyms: "possession," "cursed," "supernatural influences"
3.2 UNSTATED OR AMBIGUOUS CAUSES
Cause implied but not clearly stated: [ ]
Example: "Unexplained tragedy," "bizarre behaviour without backstory"
4. TREATMENT AND RECOVERY
4.1 TYPES OF TREATMENT PORTRAYED
Psychotropic medication: [ ]
Synonyms: "antipsychotics," "drug therapy," "psychiatric meds"
Psychotherapy: [ ]
Synonyms: "talk therapy," "CBT," "counselling"
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): [ ]
Synonyms: "shock treatment," "electric therapy"
Holistic: [ ]
Synonyms: "alternative medicine," "lifestyle changes"
Unrealistic cures: [ ]
Examples: "love cures schizophrenia," "spiritual healing"
4.2 TREATMENT SETTINGS
Inpatient: [ ]
Synonyms: "hospital," "mental health ward," "institution"
Outpatient: [ ]
Synonyms: "day clinic," "community therapy"
5. DEMOGRAPHICS OF CHARACTERS
5.1 GENDER
Male: [ ]
Female: [ ]
Non-binary: [ ]
5.2 ETHNICITY
Caucasian: [ ]
Black: [ ]
Asian: [ ]
Other: [ ]
5.3 AGE
Child (under 12): [ ]
Teenager (13–19): [ ]
Adult (20–59): [ ]
Elderly (60+): [ ]
5.4 SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
Low (e.g., homeless, unemployed): [ ]
Middle (e.g., employed, stable housing): [ ]
High (e.g., affluent, privileged): [ ]
6. VIOLENCE AND SELF-HARM
6.1 VIOLENCE DEPICTED
Violence toward others: [ ]
Synonyms: "attacks," "assaults," "murderous behaviour"
Homicidal tendencies: [ ]
Synonyms: "killer," "murderer," "psychopath"
Unpredictable or aggressive behaviour: [ ]
Synonyms: "erratic," "dangerous," "violent outbursts"
No violence portrayed: [ ]
6.2 SELF-HARM DEPICTED
Suicide attempts or ideation: [ ]
Synonyms: "suicidal thoughts," "attempted suicide"
Nonsuicidal self-injury: [ ]
Synonyms: "cutting," "self-harm"
Substance abuse: [ ]
Synonyms: "drug use," "alcohol dependence"
No self-harm depicted: [ ]
7. CONTEXT AND MEDIUM
7.1 TYPE OF MEDIUM
Newspaper articles: [ ]
Documentaries/interviews: [ ]
Social media posts: [ ]
Magazine features: [ ]
7.2 STYLE OF REPORTING
Sensationalist: [ ]
Features fear-driven headlines, exaggeration.
Factual: [ ]
Focuses on statistics, research, or expert insights.
Empathetic/personal story: [ ]
Highlights lived experiences or humanising narratives.
USING THE CODING FRAME
Tallying: For each observed instance in your media sample, record a tally in the relevant subcategory.
Cross-comparison: Use the tallies to compare patterns across different media sources (e.g., tabloid vs. broadsheet).
Trends Analysis: Look for recurring themes, such as overemphasis on violence or underrepresentation of negative symptoms.
FURTHER READING AND RESOURCES
Lancaster University CASService: Media analysis of schizophrenia stereotypes
BMC Public Health: Newspaper coverage of mental illness in the UK
Psychiatry Online: Portrayals of schizophrenia in films
BMC Psychiatry: Media framing in South Korea
Cambridge University Press: Improvements in stigma reporting
Oxford Academic: Anti-stigma interventions
This version adheres to your instructions by maintaining separate steps, retaining all content, and correcting inaccuracies. Let me know if you’d like further refinements!
EVALUATION OF CONTENT ANALYSIS
BIASED SELECTION OF SOURCES
Problem: Researchers may unintentionally select sources or media outlets that confirm their expectations or fail to represent the broader media landscape.
Impact: This selection bias can lead to overemphasising or underrepresenting particular portrayals, such as sensationalist depictions found in tabloids, while ignoring more nuanced or factual sources.
Example: A study focusing solely on high-circulation newspapers may miss the diverse perspectives found in niche, local, or regional publications.
SUBJECTIVITY IN CODING
Problem: Although coding schemes aim to standardise analysis, human coders’ interpretations can introduce bias or inconsistency.
Impact: Disagreement in labelling content as “stigmatising” versus “neutral” can undermine the reliability of results.
Example: One coder may interpret an article about a violent crime committed by someone with schizophrenia as stigmatising, while another may consider it neutral if the mental health context is adequately explained.
LACK OF CONTEXT
Problem: Content analysis often focuses on explicit text and ignores the wider social, political, or cultural factors surrounding the media.
Impact: Failing to account for context can limit the depth of analysis and lead to shallow conclusions about the media’s influence on public perceptions.
Example: An article might contain stigmatising language but be part of a broader campaign advocating for mental health awareness, a nuance that a narrow content analysis might miss.
OVERGENERALISATION OF FINDINGS
Problem: Conclusions drawn from limited datasets may be inaccurately applied to all forms of media or cultural contexts.
Impact: Overgeneralisation can obscure important variations in representation across different platforms, genres, or cultures.
Example: Findings based on news articles may not accurately reflect portrayals in films, television shows, or social media.
LIMITED SCOPE
Problem: Content analysis often tallies the frequency and type of portrayals but neglects to assess audience reception or interpretation.
Impact: Without understanding how audiences perceive and react to portrayals, the analysis cannot fully determine the societal impact of media representations.
Example: A content analysis might show frequent stigmatising portrayals, but it cannot confirm whether these depictions reinforce stigma without audience-focused research.
CHALLENGES IN DEFINING CATEGORIES
Problem: Defining categories like “stigmatising,” “neutral,” or “positive” is complex and often culturally dependent.
Impact: Ambiguity in definitions can lead to inconsistent coding and unreliable conclusions.
Example: Depictions of schizophrenia as “dangerous” may be accurate in the context of untreated cases with severe symptoms but stigmatising in generalised portrayals.
TEMPORAL BIAS
Problem: Media trends and societal attitudes evolve, but content analysis often captures portrayals from a specific time period.
Impact: This can create a temporal bias, where findings do not reflect broader or long-term trends.
Example: A study analysing films from the 1990s may not capture more recent improvements in mental health reporting and awareness.
DIFFICULTY MEASURING IMPACT
Problem: While content analysis identifies patterns in media, it cannot measure the direct effects of these patterns on public perceptions or behaviours.
Impact: Conclusions about the media’s role in shaping stigma often remain speculative without complementary audience research.
Example: A study highlighting frequent stigmatising portrayals cannot confirm whether these depictions lead to increased discrimination without audience surveys or focus groups.
ADDRESSING LIMITATIONS
To enhance the reliability and validity of content analysis, researchers can adopt the following strategies:
DIVERSE AND REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES
Ensure that the media sources span a wide range of platforms, genres, and contexts to capture diverse portrayals.MULTIPLE CODERS AND RELIABILITY CHECKS
Use multiple coders to analyse the same content and calculate inter-coder reliability to minimise subjectivity.COMPLEMENTARY AUDIENCE RESEARCH
Combine content analysis with audience-focused methods such as surveys, interviews, or focus groups to gauge the impact of portrayals on public attitudes.CONTEXTUALISATION
Frame findings within their historical, cultural, and societal context to provide a deeper understanding of the media’s influence.CLEARLY DEFINED CATEGORIES
Establish transparent and replicable coding schemes to reduce ambiguity and ensure consistency.
