THE ETHOLOGICAL APPROACH
KEY TERMS
ALTRICIAL SPECIES
Animals are born helpless and need a lot of parental care before they can survive on their own. They usually have closed eyes, little fur or feathers, and weak muscles at birth. Examples include humans, puppies, and baby birds like robins.
APOSEMATIC
Bright colours or patterns on an animal warn predators that it is toxic or dangerous. For example, poison dart frogs have bright colours to signal their toxicity.
ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
A type of learning where an animal links two things, such as a stimulus and a response. For example, Pavlov’s dogs learned to associate a bell with food, making them salivate when they heard the bell.
CRITICAL PERIOD
A short, specific time in development when behaviour must be learned, or it won’t develop properly. For example, baby birds must imprint on a caregiver shortly after hatching.
EUSOCIAL
A high level of social organization where individuals live in groups, divide labour and have cooperative care of the young. Bees, ants, and termites are examples of eusocial species.
ETHOLOGY
The scientific study of animal behaviour focuses on natural environments and instinctive actions. Ethologists study behaviours like imprinting, mating, and survival strategies in different species.
FILIAL ATTACHMENT
The strong bond that young animals form with their parents or caregivers shortly after birth. This helps ensure survival by keeping the young close to their caregivers for protection and learning.
FIXED ACTION PATTERNS (FAPs)
Innate, automatic behaviours triggered by a specific stimulus follow a set sequence. Once started, they continue to completion, even if the trigger is removed. For example, a goose rolling an egg back into its nest will complete the action even if it is taken away.
IMPRINTING
A rapid, irreversible form of learning that happens shortly after birth. Young animals attach to and follow the first moving object they see. Lorenz (1935) showed that geese imprinted on him as if he were the first thing they saw.
INNATE BEHAVIOUR
A behaviour an animal is born with rather than one it learns. Examples include fixed action patterns, imprinting, and social releasers. These behaviours have evolved because they help animals survive and reproduce.
INNATE RELEASING MECHANISMS (IRM)
A built-in system in the brain that detects a specific stimulus and triggers an instinctive response. For example, a baby’s cry (stimulus) triggers a mother’s caregiving response.
INSTINCT
It is an automatic, natural behaviour that happens without thinking or learning. Instincts are hardwired into an animal’s brain and help with survival. For example, newborn babies instinctively suckle for milk.
MONOTROPY
Bowlby’s idea is that babies form one special attachment (usually to their mother), which is more important than all other attachments. This bond shapes future relationships and emotional development.
PHYLOGENY
The evolutionary history of a species shows how it has changed over time and how it is related to other species. Scientists study phylogeny by looking at fossils and DNA.
PRECOCIAL SPECIES
Animals born in a more developed state can move, see, or feed themselves shortly after birth. They usually have open eyes, fur, or feathers and can follow their parents immediately. Examples include ducks, horses, and giraffes.
RELEASER; RELEASING MECHANISM (RM)
A specific stimulus that triggers an automatic response. For example, a mother bird feeding a chick is triggered by the chick’s open beak, which acts as a releaser.
SEXUAL IMPRINTING
When early attachment influences later mate preferences. Lorenz found that birds imprinted on humans sometimes preferred humans as mates, showing how early experiences shape attraction.
SOCIAL RELEASERS
Innate behaviours that encourage caregiving from parents. Human babies cry, smile, and cling to get attention and care. These behaviours help form attachments and ensure survival.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Ethology is a branch of zoology that studies animal behaviour in natural environments, focusing on its evolutionary significance and biological mechanisms. It examines how behaviours develop, their adaptive value, and their role in survival and reproduction. Unlike behaviourism, which prioritises learned behaviours, ethology emphasises innate, genetically programmed behaviours across species. Rather than relying solely on controlled experiments, ethologists observe animals in their natural habitats to identify behaviour patterns shaped by evolution.
The roots of ethology lie in Darwin’s exploration of animal emotions and instincts. In 1872, he published The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, which suggested that behaviours serve adaptive functions and have evolved in response to environmental pressures. His ideas encouraged early researchers like George Romanes, though Romanes’ attempts to interpret animal intelligence in human-like terms lacked scientific rigour. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, researchers such as Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, and Wallace Craig expanded on this idea by documenting instinctive behaviours across species. They focused on behaviours that appeared to be innate and consistent across species. Their method involved cataloguing behaviours into ethograms, which provided structured descriptions of how animals acted in different situations. This approach created a database of instinctive behaviours, forming the basis for modern ethological research.
However, the field as we know it today began to take shape in the 1930s with the work of Nikolaas Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz, and Karl von Frisch, who were later awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973 for their contributions.
Modern ethology combines laboratory and field research and powerfully connects with neuroanatomy, ecology, and evolutionary biology. By studying behaviour across different species, ethologists aim to understand how specific actions contribute to survival and reproduction. This knowledge has applications in wildlife conservation, animal welfare, and human psychology. Today, ethology is supported by dedicated scientific journals such as Animal Behaviour, Behavioral Ecology, and Ethology and continues to expand through interdisciplinary research in cognition, genetics, and neuroscience.
ETHOLOGY: THE STUDY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR
Ethology gained recognition as a formal discipline due to the work of Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen in the 1930s and 1940s. They studied instinctive behaviours, imprinting, and fixed action patterns, demonstrating that many behaviours are biologically programmed rather than learned.
Followigr\. Other key researchers, including William Thorpe, Robert Hinde, and Patrick Bateson at Cambridge University, contributed to its growth by investigating how behaviour develops over an animal’s lifetime and how learning interacts with instinct.
By the early 1970s, aetiology was recognised as a major branch of biological science. In 1973, Lorenz, Tinbergen, and von Frisch were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize, solidifying their impact on the field.
TDETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOUR
According to ethologists, animal behaviour is influenced by three main factors: instinct, learning, and environmental conditions. Environmental influences include abiotic factors (such as temperature and light levels, which impact activity patterns, particularly in nocturnal or cold-blooded animals) and biotic factors (such as interactions with other animals, including mating, predation, and competition for resources).
INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOUR
Instinctive behaviours are those that are genetically programmed and occur without prior learning. These behaviours are often essential for survival and reproduction. Instinct is "a largely inheritable and unalterable tendency of an organism to make a complex and specific response to environmental stimuli without involving reason.
For example, honeybees perform waggle dances to communicate the location of food sources.
FIXED ACTION PATTERNS: INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOUR SEQUENCES
One of the most significant discoveries in ethology was the concept of fixed action patterns (FAPs), first identified by Oskar Heinroth and later developed by Konrad Lorenz. A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a set sequence of behaviours that happens in the same way whenever triggered by a sign stimulus. Once the behaviour starts, it cannot be stopped—it will continue until the end, even if the original trigger disappears.
Key features of FAPs:
They are automatic and instinctive – Animals are born with these behaviours.
They always happen in the same way – No changes, no variation.
They are triggered by a sign stimulus – Something in the environment starts the behaviour.
They run to completion – Once started, the behaviour must finish, even if the stimulus is removed.
Examples of FAPs:
Egg-rolling in geese (Tinbergen, 1951) – If a goose sees an egg outside its nest, it automatically rolls it back with its beak. Even if the egg is taken away mid-action, the goose still completes the rolling motion as if the egg were there.
Aggression in stickleback fish (Tinbergen, 1951) – Male stickleback fish attack other males who have a red belly. If they see anything red, even a fake fish or just a red shape, they will automatically start fighting because the colour red acts as the sign stimulus.
Yawning in humans – When one person yawns, others often automatically yawn, too, even if they don’t feel tired. The sight of someone yawning acts as a sign stimulus and triggers a yawning FAP. Once someone starts yawning, they can’t stop halfway—it must be complete.
EXAMPLES OF FIXED ACTION PATTERNS
Chicks peck at a red spot on their mother’s beak, which instinctively triggers feeding.
Graylag geese roll displaced eggs back into their nest, even if the egg is removed during the action.
Bees perform the waggle dance, a movement pattern that conveys information about food sources.
Further research by Nikolaas Tinbergen demonstrated that exaggerated versions of these stimuli (supernormal stimuli) could provoke even more substantial responses. His experiments showed that these behaviours are rigid, hardwired, and not dependent on learning, reinforcing that animals are biologically programmed to respond to key environmental cues.
INNATE RELEASING MECHANISM (IRM)
An innate releasing mechanism (IRM) is like a built-in reflex system in an animal’s brain. It recognises a specific signal (a sign stimulus) and automatically triggers a natural behaviour. This helps animals react quickly to things like finding food, avoiding danger, or protecting their young.
Key points about IRMs:
They are instinctive, meaning animals are born with them and do not need to learn them.
They are automatic, so when an animal sees or hears the proper signal, it will respond without thinking.
The sign stimulus is the trigger, like a switch that turns on the behaviour.
Examples of IRMs:
Mother birds feeding chicks – A baby bird opens its mouth wide, showing a bright red inside. This red colour is the sign stimulus, triggering the mother to feed it instantly. The mother doesn’t think about feeding—her brain automatically reacts to the red mouth.
A cat arching its back when scared – If a cat sees a bigger animal, its body automatically puffs up, making it look larger. Seeing a possible threat triggers an IRM, activating the defensive response.
HOW IRMs AND FAPs WORK TOGETHER
The IRM detects a specific trigger (e.g., a goose sees an egg outside its nest).
The IRM sends a signal to start a FAP (e.g., the goose begins rolling the egg back).
The FAP continues until completed, even if the original stimulus is gone.
IS THERE ANY FLEXIBILITY IN FAPs?
Early researchers, like Lorenz and Tinbergen, believed that FAPs were wholly fixed and could not change. However, later studies suggested that some FAPs can be modified slightly by experience. For example:
Animals may learn to ignore certain stimuli if they repeatedly experience them without a consequence.
Some FAPs may adapt slightly based on the environment, but they remain primarily instinctive.
Despite this slight flexibility, FAPs are still instinctive behaviours and are not influenced by learning in the same way as other behaviours.
CONCLUSION
IRMs act as "switches" that recognise specific stimuli and trigger behaviours.
FAPs are automatic, unchangeable behaviours that always happen in the same way.
Once a FAP starts, it must finish, even if the trigger disappears.
While some FAPs can be slightly influenced by experience, they are still instinctive and not learned.
SOCIAL ETHOLOGY
Ethologists initially focused on studying animals as individuals. Still, in 1972, John H. Crook distinguished between comparative ethology, which examines individual behaviour, and social ethology, which explores how animals behave in groups and how social structures influence interactions. He argued that future research should shift towards understanding the behaviour of social groups rather than just individual actions.
E. O. Wilson’s Sociobiology reinforced this shift in focus: The New Synthesis (1975) applied evolutionary theory to social behaviour. Wilson Robert Trivers and W. D. Hamilton argued that natural selection and genetic advantages can explain social behaviours such as altruism, cooperation, and competition. The development of behavioural ecology further transformed ethology by integrating ecological factors into the study of animal behaviour.
Additionally, there has been increasing collaboration between ethology and comparative psychology, broadening the approaches used to understand behaviour. More recently, in 2020, Tobias Starzak and Albert Newen proposed that some animals may possess beliefs, suggesting a cognitive component to behaviour beyond simple instinct and conditioning.
LEARNING IN ANIMALS
Learning allows animals to adapt to their environment by modifying their behaviour based on experience. Unlike instinctive behaviours, which are genetically programmed and require no prior exposure, learned behaviours result from repeated interactions with stimuli, observation, or instruction from others. Learning enables animals to develop new survival strategies, improve decision-making, and respond flexibly to their surroundings.
HABITUATION
Habituation is the simplest form of learning. In it, an animal gradually stops responding to a repeated stimulus with no positive or negative consequence. This helps animals conserve energy by ignoring irrelevant or harmless stimuli while remaining alert to potential threats.
When an animal encounters a stimulus repeatedly without any consequence, its nervous system reduces its response over time. This differs from sensory adaptation (in sensory organs like the eyes and ears) because habituation happens in the brain and nervous system.
Prairie dogs provide a well-documented example of habituation. They use alarm calls to warn their group of predators like hawks and foxes. If they initially perceive humans as a threat, they will sound alarm calls and hide. However, in areas where humans frequently pass by without harm, they learn to ignore human presence, avoiding unnecessary energy expenditure.
Another example can be seen in sea anemones. When touched, they retract their tentacles as a defensive response. However, if repeatedly touched without harm, they stop retracting, having learned that the stimulus poses no threat.
Habituation is essential because it prevents animals from wasting energy on non-threatening stimuli while maintaining responsiveness to real dangers.
ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
Associative learning occurs when an animal forms a connection between two stimuli or between a behaviour and its consequence. This allows animals to predict future events based on past experiences.
There are two primary types of associative learning:
Classical conditioning – An animal learns to associate a previously neutral stimulus with an important event.
Operant conditioning – An animal learns through rewards and punishments, adjusting its behaviour accordingly.
A well-known example of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs. Pavlov rang a bell before feeding them, and over time, the dogs began salivating at the sound of the bell alone, as they had learned to associate it with food.
Operant conditioning, studied extensively by B. F. Skinner, involves learning through consequences. In experiments with rats, Skinner found that they learned to press a lever to receive food (a reward) or avoid an electric shock (a punishment). The rats modified their behaviour through trial and error to maximise rewards and avoid negative outcomes.
Associative learning is widespread in the animal kingdom, shaping important survival behaviours such as hunting strategies, predator avoidance, and social communication.
CULTURAL LEARNING AND SOCIAL TRANSMISSION
Some behaviours are not individually learned but transmitted across generations through social interactions. This process, known as cultural learning, allows animals to acquire behaviours from others rather than learning solely through personal experience.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING AND IMITATION
Observational learning occurs when animals watch others and replicate their behaviour, reducing the need for trial and error. This type of learning is crucial in species with complex social structures, as it allows young or inexperienced individuals to learn survival skills quickly.
Chimpanzees in the wild provide a striking example of observational learning. They learn to use sticks to extract termites from mounds by closely watching experienced members of their group. Juveniles do not immediately master the technique but refine it over time.
Imitation is a more advanced form of observational learning in which an animal precisely replicates the actions of another. Capuchin monkeys in laboratory studies preferred interacting with researchers who imitated them, suggesting that imitation plays a role in social bonding and trust. Similarly, chimpanzees have been observed to copy the actions of higher-ranking individuals more frequently than lower-ranking ones, indicating that they select role models when learning new behaviours.
Observational learning accelerates adaptation and helps animals pass down knowledge without relying solely on instinct or direct experience.
STIMULUS AND LOCAL ENHANCEMENT
In some cases, animals learn without directly imitating others, becoming interested in objects or locations after seeing another animal interact with them.
Stimulus enhancement – An individual becomes drawn to an object because another animal interacts with it.
Local enhancement – An individual becomes interested in a location after seeing others gather there.
Birds provide a clear example of local enhancement. A flock may not initially recognise a food source, but when they see others pecking at a particular spot, they also investigate and begin feeding there.
A key experiment on local enhancement involved monkeys. Haggerty (1909) observed that when one monkey learned to pull a rope to obtain food, another monkey that watched the process did not copy the exact movements but experimented with different approaches until it succeeded. This demonstrated that animals can learn by being drawn to an object or location rather than copying a specific behaviour.
This type of learning helps animals discover new food sources and environmental opportunities simply by being curious about what others are doing.
SOCIAL TRANSMISSION OF BEHAVIOUR
Behaviours can spread within a group as individuals observe and adopt new techniques. This can lead to the development of cultural traditions in animal populations.
A well-known example of social transmission is found in macaques in Japan. Initially, these macaques ate potatoes covered in sand. However, one individual discovered that washing them in water made them easier to eat. Over time, other macaques adopted the behaviour, and eventually, their offspring also learned to wash potatoes. This behaviour has passed down through generations and has become a learned cultural trait rather than an instinctive one.
Social transmission allows populations to adapt quickly to environmental changes and improve survival strategies without each individual having to learn independently.
TEACHING IN ANIMALS
Teaching is an advanced form of learning in which an experienced individual actively modifies their behaviour to help another acquire a skill. Unlike simple observation, teaching requires the "teacher" to alter their behaviour deliberately to improve the learner’s performance.
For a behaviour to qualify as teaching, it must:
Involve an experienced individual altering their behaviour for the benefit of another.
Provide the learner an opportunity to acquire a skill more efficiently than through independent trial and error.
Result in improved performance by the learner.
Orcas provide a striking example of teaching. Mother orcas push their calves onto shorelines to teach them how to hunt seals. If the calf struggles, the mother guides it back into the water and repeats the process until it learns the technique.
Another example is seen in ants. Some species engage in "tandem running," where an experienced ant guides another to a food source, adjusting its speed so the follower can keep up and learn the route.
New Caledonian crows also demonstrate teaching. Adults show their offspring how to use sticks and Pandanus leaves to extract insects from tree bark. This is a rare example of tool use being actively taught across generations.
Teaching accelerates learning and improves survival rates in species requiring complex skills for hunting, foraging, or tool use.
CONCLUSION
Animals learn in diverse ways, from simple habituation to complex cultural transmission and teaching. While some species rely primarily on individual trial and error, others benefit from social learning and knowledge transfer within groups. These processes shape how behaviours spread within populations, influencing survival strategies, group dynamics, and cultural traditions. Understanding animal learning mechanisms provides insight into how species adapt and evolve across generations.
ETHOLOGY APPLIED TO ATTACHMENT
Ethology has significantly influenced theories of human attachment, mainly through the work of John Bowlby, who applied evolutionary principles to explain infant-caregiver bonds.
Imprinting (Lorenz, 1935) – Lorenz’s research on geese showed that some species form instant and irreversible attachments to a caregiver during a critical period. This influenced Bowlby’s idea that human infants also have a biologically determined window for developing strong attachments.
Innate Attachment Behaviours – Ethologists argue that attachment is an evolved survival mechanism. Human infants are born with social releasers such as crying and smiling, which trigger caregiving responses and ensure protection.
Monotropy and the Secure Base (Bowlby, 1969) – Bowlby proposed that infants develop a primary attachment (monotropy) to a key caregiver who provides a secure base for exploration, forming the foundation for emotional security.
The Sensitive Period – While not as rigid as Lorenz’s critical period, Bowlby suggested a sensitive period for attachment. If a secure bond does not form in early childhood, it can lead to social and emotional difficulties later in life.
Ethological research has shaped modern attachment theory by demonstrating that attachment is biologically driven rather than purely learned. It highlights the adaptive function of early bonds, showing their role in emotional security, social development, and survival.
PARENTAL CARE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
Parental care varies widely across species and is influenced by evolutionary pressures, mating systems, and survival strategies. While some species provide no care, others invest heavily in rearing their young.
NO PARENTAL CARE
Parental care is rare in invertebrates and many fish species, where reproduction prioritises quantity over quality. These species produce large numbers of offspring but provide no direct care.
Invertebrates – Most lay eggs and abandon them, leaving offspring to survive independently.
Most Fish – Gametes are released into the water, and offspring develop without parental support.
Reptiles – Many species, including most lizards and snakes, lay eggs and leave them to hatch.
Crocodilians – Exceptionally, female crocodiles guard their nests and transport hatchlings to water, sometimes staying with them for months.
Tilapia (Fish) – Practise oral brooding, where the mother carries eggs in her mouth until they hatch, offering protection and nutrients.
BIPARENTAL CARE
Biparental care occurs when both male and female parents cooperate to raise offspring. Although uncommon, it has evolved in birds, mammals, amphibians, fish, and insects.
Monogamous species are more likely to exhibit biparental care, ensuring offspring survival.
Polygynous species (where one male mates with multiple females) often see female-only care, as males invest less due to paternity uncertainty.
Promiscuous species typically involve little or no male parental involvement, as fathers cannot confirm genetic relatedness.
PARENTAL CARE IN BIRDS
Birds are unique among vertebrates for their high levels of biparental care. Around 90% of bird species exhibit shared parenting, including feeding, incubating eggs, and protecting young.
Alloparental care (Helpers at the nest) – Some species, such as meerkats and certain birds, have non-parental individuals assisting in rearing offspring.
Female-only care is standard in some bird species, while male-only care is rare but seen in emus and seahorses.
SINGLE-PARENT CARE: MALES
Male parental care is rare but evolves when the benefits of caring outweigh the costs of seeking additional mates.
Birds: Found in 1% of bird species, such as emus and jacanas, where males exclusively incubate eggs and raise chicks.
Fish & Amphibians: Some species show male-only care, such as:
Giant water bugs – Males carry eggs on their backs until they hatch.
Seahorses – Males are unique in becoming pregnant and giving birth. However, they provide no care after birth.
SINGLE-PARENT CARE: FEMALES
Female-only care is the most common form of parental investment, particularly in mammals, where 95% of species rely solely on the mother for care.
Mammals: Almost all species rely on maternal care, as only females produce milk.
Exceptions: Some mammals, such as wolves and lions, show shared parenting within social groups.
BAD PARENTING IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
While parental care is essential for many species, some animals abandon or neglect their offspring in favour of survival or reproductive success.
Harp Seals – Mothers nurse pups for 12 days before leaving them alone.
Rabbits – Avoid their young to prevent attracting predators.
Pandas – Typically give birth to twins but abandon the weaker ones.
Hooded Grebes – Leave unhatched eggs if another chick has already hatched.
CONCLUSION
Parental care strategies vary widely across species, shaped by evolutionary trade-offs between offspring survival and reproductive opportunities. While mammals and birds invest heavily in their young, many fish and reptiles rely on sheer numbers for species survival. Understanding these strategies highlights the diverse ways in which species ensure their genes are passed on.
FILIAL ATTACHMENT
Filial attachment is the instinctive bond between a young animal and its caregiver, usually its mother. This attachment forms soon after birth and is essential for survival, ensuring the young animal stays close to a caregiver for protection, food, and learning critical behaviours.
KEY FEATURES OF FILIAL ATTACHMENT
Instinctive and not learned – Young animals do not need to be taught to follow their caregiver; it happens automatically.
Forms soon after birth – Attachment develops in many species within hours or days of birth.
Ensures survival – Staying close to a parent helps the young avoid predators, find food, and learn survival skills.
Seen in precocial species – Animals born in a relatively developed state (like birds and some mammals) rely on filial attachment to follow their caregiver immediately.
EXAMPLES OF FILIAL ATTACHMENT
IMPRINTING IN BIRDS (Lorenz, 1935)
Young geese and ducks instinctively imprint on the first moving object they see, usually their mother.
If separated from her, they follow her calls and stay close for protection.
Lorenz demonstrated that geese would imprint on him if he were the first moving object they saw, proving that filial attachment is innate.
MOTHER -YOUNG BONDING IN MAMMALS
Newborn lambs, foals, and calves quickly form strong bonds with their mother, recognising her by smell, sound, and sight.
If separated too early, they become distressed and struggle to adapt to new caregivers.
HUMANS, INFANTS AND CAREGIVERS
Bowlby (1969) argued that human babies are born with an instinctive drive to attach to a primary caregiver.
Babies use social releasers (crying, clinging, and smiling) to trigger caregiving responses.
This ensures survival by keeping the infant close to someone who provides food, warmth, and protection.
FILIAL ATTACHMENT VS OTHER TYPES OF ATTACHMENT
Type of AttachmentDescriptionExampleFilial AttachmentBond between a young animal and its caregiver, crucial for survivalDucklings following their other sexual ImprintingEarly attachment influences later mate choice birds choosing mates similar to their first caregiverPeer AttachmentBonds formed with siblings or group members of pups playing together to develop social skillsParental AttachmentBond a parent forms with their offspring other elephants staying with their young for years.
FILIAL ATTACHMENT AND FIXED ACTION PATTERNS (FAPs)
Filial attachment is often linked to fixed action patterns, meaning the behaviour happens automatically once triggered.
Example: Ducklings automatically follow their mother when she moves. Even if she stops calling, they continue to follow her.
WHAT HAPPENS IF FILIAL ATTACHMENT FAILS?
If filial attachment does not form properly, it can cause serious developmental issues:
IN BIRDS: If a chick does not imprint on a caregiver, it may fail to recognise members of its species and struggle with social behaviours later in life.
IN MAMMALS: Orphaned animals raised without a mother often show abnormal behaviours, such as struggling to bond with their species or displaying excessive fear or aggression.
IN HUMANS: Rutter et al. (1998) found that Romanian orphans who lacked early attachment struggled with forming bonds later in life and often developed disinhibited attachment disorder (where they showed indiscriminate friendliness to strangers).
CONCLUSION
Filial attachment is a biologically programmed behaviour that ensures young animals and humans form a strong bond with a caregiver for survival. While it is primarily instinctive, later experiences can influence how this attachment develops. In some cases, if filial attachment fails, it can lead to serious long-term developmental and social issues.
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PRECOCIAL AND ALTRICIAL SPECIES
The terms precocial and altricial are used in ethology, the biological study of animal behaviour, to describe the developmental state of offspring at birth or hatching. These classifications help explain differences in parental investment, survival strategies, and cognitive development across species.
While precocial and altricial are the two primary classifications of offspring development, they exist on a continuum rather than as rigid categories. Some species do not fit neatly into either group and instead display characteristics that fall in between.
SEMI-PRECOCIAL AND SEMI-ALTRICIAL SPECIES
Some animals exhibit a mix of precocial and altricial traits, leading to semi-precocial and semi-altricial species classifications.
Semi-precocial species: These animals are relatively mature at birth but require significant parental care. For example, gulls and penguins hatch with open eyes and downy feathers but depend on their parents for food and protection.
Semi-altricial species: These species are born helpless like altricial animals but develop more rapidly and may begin moving or feeding earlier. Owls, hawks, and some marsupials fall into this category—they are born immature but remain in the nest under parental care while developing.
SUPERNORMAL SPECIES
Some species, mainly insects and amphibians, produce vast offspring with minimal parental investment. Many of these young die before reaching maturity, but their survival strategy relies on sheer numbers rather than parental care. Frogs, sea turtles, and many fish species lay hundreds or thousands of eggs, with only a tiny fraction surviving to adulthood.
PRECOCIAL SPECIES
Precocial species are relatively mature, mobile, and independent soon after birth or hatching. Their brains are well-developed at birth, relying heavily on instinct rather than learning. However, because their brains do not develop much beyond birth, they cannot adapt and memorise extensively as they grow.
Key Characteristics:
Born or hatched with open eyes, fur/feathers, and the ability to move.
Require less parental care than altricial species.
Rely on innate behaviours rather than learning from experience.
Tend longer gestation or incubation periods to allow for greater prenatal development.
Examples of Precocial Species:
Birds: Ducks, chickens, geese – hatchlings can immediately walk and follow their mother.
Mammals: Horses, deer, giraffes – newborns can stand and walk within hours.
Reptiles: Many reptiles, such as turtles and crocodiles, hatch fully functional and independent.
ALTRICIAL SPECIES
Altricial species are animals born undeveloped and require significant care, feeding, and protection from their parents. Unlike precocial species, their brains are less developed at birth but continue to grow and develop, allowing them to learn, adapt, and develop complex skills over time.
Key Characteristics:
Born helpless, blind, and immobile, often lacking fur or feathers.
Depend on parental care for food, warmth, and protection.
Their brains develop after birth, allowing for more significant learning, adaptation, and problem-solving.
They tend to have shorter gestation or incubation periods since their development occurs postnatally.
Examples of Altricial Species:
Birds: Owls, pigeons, songbirds – hatchlings are blind, featherless, and require feeding.
Mammals: Humans, dogs, cats, rodents – newborns rely on their parents for survival and learning.
COMPARISON & HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Humans are an extreme example of an altricial species, born in an underdeveloped state but with tremendous cognitive potential. Unlike precocial species, which rely on instinct, humans have an extended period of brain development, allowing for more significant learning, problem-solving, and social interaction. This prolonged childhood dependency is one of the key factors behind human intelligence, adaptability, and culture.
COMPLEX ANIMALS VERSUS NON-COMPLEX ANIMALS
The more complex an organism is, the longer it takes to develop. Life evolved over billions of years, from single-celled microorganisms to large-brained mammals, and mammalian parental care has become increasingly complex. Mammals invest heavily in their young, as survival depends on learning essential skills rather than relying solely on instinct. A key feature of mammalian care is maternal nursing, where mothers provide milk for their offspring.
WHAT SPECIES HAS THE LONGEST CHILDHOOD?
Orangutans have one of the most extended childhoods in the animal kingdom. While orangutans in captivity can reproduce as early as six years old, they remain dependent on their mothers for far longer in the wild. Infant orangutans are nursed for around six years, and even after weaning, they stay close to their mothers, learning survival skills.
Like humans, female orangutans form strong, lasting bonds with their offspring.
For the first two years, orangutan infants depend entirely on their mothers, clinging to them as they navigate the jungle.
Some orangutan mothers allow their offspring to stay for three years after weaning, while others encourage independence sooner.
WHAT ANIMALS STAY WITH THEIR MOTHERS FOR LIFE?
Certain species form lifelong bonds with their mothers, while others have extended parental care due to the complexity of their social structures and survival needs.
African Elephants – Have the longest gestation period of any mammal (22 months). Calves nurse for four to six years and remain with their mothers for up to 16 years. Female elephants stay in the herd for life.
Chimpanzees – Mothers provide care and protection for years, with young chimps learning essential skills for survival.
Dolphins – Calves stay with their mothers for several years, forming strong social bonds within their pods.
Lions – Cubs remain with their mothers for up to two years, learning to hunt and navigate the pride’s hierarchy.
Grey Kangaroos – Joeys stay in their mother’s pouch for about nine months and continue to suckle for over a year.
Alligators – Unlike most reptiles, female alligators provide parental care, guarding their young for up to a year.
Giraffes, Gazelles – While not as long as some species, young animals remain close to their mothers, learning survival strategies.
PARENTAL CARE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
Parental care varies widely across species, depending on evolutionary pressures, reproductive strategies, and environmental demands. Some species provide no care, while others invest heavily in raising their offspring.
NO PARENTAL CARE
Parental care is uncommon among invertebrates and many fish species, where reproduction is based on quantity rather than quality. In these cases, parents produce many offspring but do not invest in survival.
Invertebrates – Many species lay eggs and abandon them without further involvement in offspring survival.
Most Fish – Gametes are released into the water, and offspring develop independently without parental support.
Reptiles – Many species, including most lizards and snakes, lay eggs and leave them to hatch. However, some exceptions exist:
Crocodilians – Mothers protect their nests and assist hatchlings in reaching water, sometimes staying with them for several months.
Tilapia (Fish) – Practise oral brooding, where the mother carries eggs in her mouth until they hatch, providing extra protection and nutrients.
BIPARENTAL CARE
Biparental care occurs when both male and female parents cooperate to raise their offspring. Although relatively rare, this behaviour has evolved in birds, mammals, amphibians, and some fish and insects.
Monogamous species are more likely to exhibit biparental care, as both parents benefit from ensuring their offspring survive.
Polygamous species (where one male mates with multiple females) often see female-only care, as males invest less due to paternity uncertainty.
Promiscuous species (where multiple males and females mate freely) typically have little to no male parental involvement, as ensuring genetic relatedness is difficult.
PARENTAL CARE IN BIRDS
Birds are unique among vertebrates for their high levels of biparental care. Around 90% of bird species exhibit cooperative parenting, with both parents sharing responsibilities such as feeding, protecting, and incubating eggs.
Alloparental care (Helpers at the nest) – In some species, non-parental individuals assist in raising offspring, often younger siblings from previous broods.
Female-only care is still standard in certain bird species, while male-only care is rare but exists in a few species, such as emus and seahorses.
CONCLUSION
Evolutionary trade-offs between offspring survival and reproductive opportunities shape parental investment. Species with high parental care tend to have fewer offspring but provide more significant investment in each, while those with no parental care produce large numbers of offspring with low survival rates. Birds, mammals, and some reptiles and fish have evolved varied parenting strategies, demonstrating the complexity of reproductive behaviour across the animal kingdom.
The length of childhood dependency varies significantly between species and is primarily influenced by the complexity of the animal’s cognitive and social needs. Prolonged parental care allows humans, orangutans, and elephants to learn, adapt and develop intricate social structures, setting them apart from species that rely on instinct alone.
