FREUD AND AGGRESSION
DETAILED ANALYSIS: FREUD’S ALTERNATIVE TO THE BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF AGGRESSION
The Edexcel specification requires students to understand Freud's theories as an alternative explanation to the biological perspective in two key areas. First, Freud's theories are presented as an alternative to the biological explanation of individual differences, focusing on how his psychodynamic approach provides a contrasting view of human behaviour and personality development. Second, the specification highlights Freud's theories as an alternative to the biological explanation of development, offering insights into the stages of psychosexual development and the role of unconscious processes in shaping behaviour. These elements are central to meeting the requirements of the specification.
KEY TERMS
PSYCHOANALYSIS AS A TREATMENT FOR AGGRESSION
Freud’s psychoanalytic therapy aims to uncover the unconscious roots of aggressive behaviour, helping individuals understand and manage their impulses. The key methods used in psychoanalysis include:
DREAM ANALYSIS
Dreams often symbolise repressed aggressive urges. For instance, recurring dreams of conflict or destruction may represent unresolved anger towards a parent, partner, or authority figure.
By interpreting these dreams, a therapist can help the individual become aware of the unconscious sources of their aggression, reducing its influence over their behaviour.
FREE ASSOCIATION
During therapy, clients are encouraged to speak freely about their thoughts and feelings. This unstructured dialogue can reveal patterns of hostility or resentment that stem from suppressed aggression.
For example, a client who consistently mentions feelings of frustration in their work environment may uncover a deeper, unconscious anger linked to earlier experiences of feeling undervalued or controlled.
TRANSFERENCE OF AGGRESSION
Clients may project their aggressive feelings onto the therapist, re-enacting unresolved conflicts from childhood (e.g., hostility towards a parent). Analysing this transference can provide insight into the origins of their aggression and help them process these emotions in a healthier way.
EXPLORATION OF CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES
Aggression is often rooted in early life experiences, such as harsh discipline or unmet needs. Freud’s emphasis on childhood relationships highlights how unresolved feelings of anger or frustration towards caregivers can persist into adulthood, manifesting as aggressive behaviour.
FREUDIAN CONCEPTS APPLIED TO AGGRESSION
Several key Freudian concepts provide frameworks for understanding and managing aggression:
CATHARSIS
Freud’s hydraulic aggression model likens aggression to steam building in a pressure cooker. Repressed aggressive energy can build to a breaking point, resulting in violent outbursts if not released.
Psychoanalysis encourages "letting off steam" in controlled ways, such as through talking therapy or sublimation (redirecting aggression into creative or socially acceptable activities like art or sport).
This application suggests that failing to address aggression directly can lead to long-term psychological harm or interpersonal conflict.
DEFENCE MECHANISMS
Freud’s defence mechanisms explain how aggression may be redirected or disguised in behaviour:
Displacement: Aggression is redirected towards a safer target, such as a subordinate at work or a physical object (e.g., punching a wall).
Projection: Unconscious hostility is attributed to others, leading to scapegoating or excessive blame. For instance, someone with aggressive urges might accuse others of being hostile or antagonistic.
Repression: Aggressive impulses are suppressed into the unconscious, only to resurface later in explosive or uncontrollable ways.
Sublimation: Aggression is transformed into constructive outlets, such as competitive sports or artistic expression, making it socially acceptable.
LIFE AND DEATH INSTINCTS
Freud attributed aggression to the interplay of two instincts:
Eros (life instinct): Focused on creativity, growth, and self-preservation. Aggression may arise when eros is frustrated, such as when someone’s goals or desires are thwarted.
Thanatos (death instinct): Drives self-destructive and outwardly aggressive behaviours. Thanatos can result in violence, sabotage, or hostility but can also be sublimated into less harmful outlets.
In therapy, understanding the balance between these instincts can help individuals redirect destructive aggression into productive or creative endeavours.
OEDIPUS COMPLEX
Aggression can stem from unresolved feelings tied to Freud’s Oedipus Complex, where a child experiences jealousy and hostility towards the same-sex parent. These repressed feelings may manifest as displaced aggression towards others later in life.
For instance, a person with unresolved hostility towards their father may show disproportionate aggression towards male authority figures.
FREUD’S PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY OF AGGRESSION
Freud’s psychodynamic theory provides an alternative perspective, suggesting that aggression arises from internal conflicts between innate drives and societal expectations. Unlike purely biological or survival-based explanations, Freud viewed aggression as a complex psychological phenomenon, often self-destructive and rooted in deeper mental tensions.
THE ICEBERG MODEL
Freud conceptualised the mind as an iceberg, with three levels representing different degrees of consciousness:
THE CONSCIOUS MIND: Ego
The thoughts and feelings we are immediately aware of.
Aggressive impulses rarely reside here directly but may influence behaviour indirectly.
THE PRE CONSCIOUS MIND: Super Ego
Memories and urges that can be accessed with effort or prompting.
Aggression may appear symbolically, such as in dreams or slips of the tongue, requiring interpretation to uncover its true meaning.
THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND: id
The largest and most influential part of the mind, housing repressed aggressive drives and unresolved conflicts.
These unconscious drives shape behaviour in disguised forms, such as subtle hostility or irrational anger.
FREUD'S TRIPARTITE PERSONALITY STRUCTURE
Freud's tripartite model of the psyche explains personality as the interaction of three key components:
ID: The primitive and instinctual part of the psyche, driven by the pleasure principle. It seeks immediate gratification of basic needs and desires, such as hunger, sex, and aggression, without considering reality or consequences.
EGO: The rational and pragmatic part of the psyche, governed by the reality principle. It mediates between the id’s demands and the external world's constraints, finding realistic ways to satisfy desires.
SUPEREGO: The moral and ethical part of the psyche, embodying societal norms and ideals. It acts as the conscience, striving for perfection and often in conflict with the id’s impulses.
These components constantly interact, creating tension and shaping behaviour. For example, the ego works to balance the id's instinctual drives with the superego's moral standards, resulting in compromises that define an individual's actions and personality.
Once this interplay is established, it can be applied to understand how aggression fits within these dynamics, such as the id's role in driving aggressive impulses or the ego's role in controlling and expressing them appropriately.
FREUD'S THEORY OF AGGRESSION
ATAVISTIC BEHAVIOUR
Freud viewed aggression as an atavistic behaviour—a relic of our evolutionary past. In the animal kingdom, aggression is ritualistic and typically ends when one animal concedes dominance. Human aggression, however, is far deadlier due to the development of weapons, which amplify the capacity for harm. This view also suggests that while aggression may have served humans in primitive contexts, modern societies no longer benefit from such instincts.
Thus, Freud saw aggression as something deeply rooted in human nature. He believed it came from what he called the death instinct (Thanatos)—a drive that pushes people towards destruction, either of themselves or others.
Freud suggested that Thanatos exists because all living things have an unconscious desire to return to a state of non-existence or in animacy—a "peaceful" state before life began. He believed this destructive drive was an inevitable part of life, balancing the creative and life-preserving forces of the life instinct (Eros). While Eros strives for growth and survival, Thanatos pulls in the opposite direction, seeking to undo and destroy.
To Freud, aggression was the outward expression of Thanatos. Instead of turning destructive energy inward, where it might lead to self-harm or depression, the psyche redirects it toward others, resulting in hostile or violent behaviour. Aggression is the externalisation of this destructive instinct, shaped by both unconscious drives and external triggers, such as frustration or provocation. Freud saw aggression as an inevitable part of human life, often creating conflict between our instincts and the rules of society designed to suppress them.
HOW AGGRESSION DEVELOPS IN THE PSYCH SEXUAL STAGES
Freud’s psychosexual theory links unresolved conflicts during the stages of development—oral, anal, and phallic—to aggression. These conflicts disrupt the balance between the id, ego, and superego, which are the key components of the psyche. Aggression arises when the id’s primal impulses dominate, the ego fails to defer gratification according to the reality principle, or the superego lacks sufficient strength to impose moral restraint. Below is a detailed explanation of each stage and how unresolved conflicts may result in aggression, with consideration of Freud’s gender-specific views.
ORAL STAGE (0–1 YEAR) THE MANAGEMENT OF THE ID AND THE PLEASURE PRINCIPLE
The erogenous zone during the oral stage is the mouth, with pleasure derived from activities like sucking, chewing, and swallowing. Conflicts during this stage stem from either denied gratification or overindulgence, leading to oral fixation:
Orally Passive Fixation: Overindulgence, such as excessive nursing or constant pacifier use, fosters dependency on external sources of pleasure. These individuals may fail to internalise the ego's ability to delay gratification and react with frustration and aggression when their needs are unmet.
Orally Aggressive Fixation: Deprivation, such as abrupt weaning or neglect, can intensify the id’s aggressive impulses, resulting in verbal or physical hostility later in life. The ego struggles to regulate these impulses, and unchecked aggression often emerges in response to stress or frustration.
ANAL STAGE (1–3 YEARS) THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGO AND THE REALITY PRINCIPLE
The erogenous zone during the anal stage is the anus, and pleasure is derived from controlling and releasing bowel movements. Parenting approaches to toilet training are pivotal in shaping personality. Aggression arises from fixation caused by extreme approaches to discipline:
Anal Retentive Fixation: Overly strict or punitive toilet training leads to the repression of anger. The ego becomes rigid in its control, but this suppressed anger may manifest as passive-aggressive behaviour or calculated, explosive violence when the ego is overwhelmed.
Anal Expulsive Fixation: Overly permissive or lenient parenting fosters impulsivity. The id dominates, leading to unchecked aggressive behaviours and disregard for boundaries, as the child learns that actions lack consequences.
The anal stage is crucial for developing the ego’s capacity to balance immediate desires with societal expectations. Failures here may result in aggression as individuals struggle to regulate their impulses or react explosively to control by others.
PHALLIC STAGE (3–6 YEARS)
The erogenous zone during the phallic stage is the genitals, and this stage involves navigating the Oedipus complex (in boys) or the Electra complex (in girls). Aggression arises when these conflicts remain unresolved and affect the formation of the superego:
Gender Differences in Superego Formation: Freud believed that boys resolve the Oedipus complex through identification with their fathers, resulting in a stronger superego due to fear of castration. In contrast, he argued that girls’ resolution of the Electra complex was less complete, leading to a weaker superego. Consequently, Freud controversially suggested that women might exhibit less moral restraint and potentially greater emotional instability.
Weak Superego Formation: Failure to resolve these complexes, regardless of gender, weakens the superego, which serves as the internal moral authority. A weak superego allows the id’s aggressive impulses to dominate, leading to violent behaviours carried out without guilt or remorse.
Phallic Fixation: Excessive guilt or lingering rivalry during this stage can result in resentment toward authority figures or peers, often expressed through hostile actions.
The phallic stage is integral to moral development, with unresolved conflicts leaving individuals unable to internalise societal norms, thereby increasing the likelihood of aggression.
SUMMING UP
Freud’s theory demonstrates how unresolved conflicts at the psychosexual stages can lead to aggression by disrupting the balance between the id, ego, and superego. Examples include:
ID DOMINANCE: Oral fixation: Impulsivity or hostility due to unmet needs or overdependence.
WEAK EGO: Anal fixation: Repressed anger or unchecked impulsivity resulting from strict or lenient parenting.
WEAK SUPEREGO: Phallic fixation: Weak moral development or unresolved rivalries leading to guilt-free aggression.
CATHARSIS AND AGGRESSION IN FREUDIAN THEORY
Freud believed that unresolved aggression, if repressed, creates a reservoir of psychic tension that can lead to psychological distress. Defence mechanisms like sublimation provide an ideal form of catharsis by transforming aggression into productive outlets that align with societal values and reduce internal conflict.
In contrast, displacement, while offering temporary relief, can perpetuate aggression in harmful or socially unacceptable ways. Freud acknowledged that it does not resolve the root cause of aggression, leaving the individual at risk of continued frustration or guilt. Repression, though initially protective, often causes long-term psychological harm as the individual remains unaware of the source of their aggression.
Ultimately, Freud’s theory underscores the importance of catharsis for maintaining psychological stability but highlights that the effectiveness of catharsis depends on the mechanism employed. Sublimation stands out as the most constructive option, providing a means to resolve aggression that benefits both the individual and society.
REPRESSION AS A DEFENCE MECHANISM
Repression is one of the ego's primary strategies for handling aggression. By relegating aggressive impulses to the unconscious, repression prevents them from entering conscious awareness, thereby avoiding immediate conflict with the superego or external social norms. However, Freud argued that repression is not a permanent solution. The repressed energy remains in the unconscious and continues to influence behaviour indirectly. Over time, this unresolved aggression may resurface in distorted forms, such as neurotic symptoms, anxiety, or displaced aggression.
For instance, an individual who represses anger toward a parent might unconsciously redirect these emotions onto a safer substitute, such as a co-worker or partner. While repression temporarily shields the individual from the discomfort of aggressive impulses, it creates long-term psychological tension, as the person often lacks awareness of the original source of their aggression.
CATHARSIS THROUGH EGO DEFENCE MECHANISMS
To prevent the damaging effects of repression, the ego employs other defence mechanisms to achieve catharsis—a release of aggressive energy in a way that reduces psychological tension. However, not all defence mechanisms are equally effective, and some carry significant risks.
DISPLACEMENT
How It Works: Aggression is redirected from its original target, which may be inaccessible or too threatening, to a substitute that is perceived as safer or less likely to retaliate.
Why It Helps: Displacement provides temporary relief by allowing the release of pent-up aggression. For example, an individual frustrated with their employer might vent their anger by shouting at a family member or slamming a door.
Why It’s Problematic: Freud acknowledged that displacement often leads to harmful or socially unacceptable outcomes. While it prevents direct confrontation with the original source of aggression, it risks damaging relationships, perpetuating cycles of aggression, or violating moral and social norms. Displacement is a stopgap measure rather than a constructive resolution, making it inferior to other mechanisms like sublimation.
SUBLIMATION
How It Works: Aggression is redirected into productive and socially acceptable activities, such as sports, art, or creative pursuits.
Why It Helps: Sublimation transforms the id’s aggressive impulses into culturally valued behaviours, satisfying the need for emotional release while adhering to both societal norms and the superego’s moral standards. For instance, a person experiencing frustration might channel their energy into crafting a powerful poem, excelling in competitive sports, or constructing a detailed sculpture.
Freud’s View: Freud regarded sublimation as the healthiest and most constructive defence mechanism. It resolves aggressive tension in a way that benefits the individual and society, avoiding the negative consequences of repression or displacement.
THE DUAL ROLE OF REPRESSION AND CATHARSIS
Freud believed that unresolved aggression, if repressed, creates a reservoir of psychic tension that can lead to psychological distress. Defence mechanisms like sublimation provide an ideal form of catharsis by transforming aggression into productive outlets that align with societal values and reduce internal conflict.
In contrast, displacement, while offering temporary relief, can perpetuate aggression in harmful or socially unacceptable ways. Freud acknowledged that it does not resolve the root cause of aggression, leaving the individual at risk of continued frustration or guilt. Repression, though initially protective, often causes long-term psychological harm as the individual remains unaware of the source of their aggression.
Ultimately, Freud’s theory underscores the importance of catharsis for maintaining psychological stability but highlights that the effectiveness of catharsis depends on the mechanism employed. Sublimation stands out as the most constructive option, providing a means to resolve aggression that benefits both the individual and society.
RISKS OF UNRESOLVED AGGRESSION
Freud emphasised the dangers of repressing aggression, as unaddressed tension in the unconscious can lead to:
Sudden Violent Outbursts: The accumulated pressure may overwhelm the ego, resulting in impulsive and destructive behaviour.
Psychological Harm: Chronic repression contributes to anxiety, depression, or other emotional disturbances.
Interpersonal Conflict: Repressed aggression often strains relationships, creating patterns of hostility or passive-aggressive behaviours.
These risks highlight the importance of catharsis—whether achieved through sublimation, displacement, or therapeutic exploration—to maintain psychological and emotional balance
WHY THESE REACTIONS OCCUR
Freud believed that such behaviours arise when the psyche struggles to manage aggression due to imbalances between the id, ego, and superego.
These risks highlight the importance of catharsis—whether achieved through sublimation, displacement, or therapeutic exploration—to maintain psychological and emotional balance.
However, when the ego fails to perform this mediating role effectively, the individual’s ability to regulate their emotions and behaviours diminishes. This failure can occur due to several factors:
Dominant Id Impulses: If the id’s desires are too overpowering, the ego may struggle to suppress or channel them appropriately. The result is impulsive and unchecked aggressive behaviours, as the individual acts out their frustrations without considering consequences.
Weak Superego: When the superego lacks sufficient strength or moral authority, the ego may not feel compelled to enforce restraint on the id. This can lead to aggression being expressed freely, with little regard for ethical or social norms.
Overburdened Ego: In cases of chronic stress or unresolved psychological conflict, the ego can become overwhelmed. This may result in the individual “snapping,” where aggression surfaces as a response to the ego’s inability to cope with internal or external pressures.
Ultimately, the ego’s effectiveness in managing aggression depends on its capacity to balance the competing demands of the id and superego while navigating societal expectations. Failures in this balance—whether through a dominant id, weak superego, or overstressed ego—highlight the critical role of ego development in mitigating aggressive tendencies.
THERAPY AS A CATHARTIC PROCESS
CATHARSIS IN PSYCHOANALYSIS
Freud saw psychoanalysis as a structured form of catharsis, providing patients with the opportunity to access and release repressed aggressive impulses safely. By bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness through methods such as free association and dream interpretation, patients could resolve inner conflicts and alleviate psychological tension. This process allowed individuals to achieve emotional relief while fostering greater insight into their behaviour, reducing the reliance on maladaptive defence mechanisms.
In this therapeutic setting, the ego is strengthened, enabling it to mediate more effectively between the id’s aggressive impulses and the superego’s moral demands. Psychoanalysis thus serves as a controlled framework for catharsis, helping individuals transform their repressed aggression into healthier, more constructive forms of expression
PSYCHOANALYSIS AS A TREATMENT FOR AGGRESSION
Freud’s psychoanalytic therapy aims to uncover the unconscious roots of aggressive behaviour, enabling individuals to understand and manage their impulses. The key methods employed in psychoanalysis include:
DREAM ANALYSIS
Dreams are often symbolic representations of repressed aggressive urges. For example, recurring dreams involving conflict, destruction, or violent scenarios may signify unresolved anger toward a parent, partner, or authority figure.
By interpreting these dreams, therapists help individuals identify the unconscious sources of their aggression, bringing these feelings into conscious awareness. This process reduces the influence of unconscious aggression on behaviour and fosters healthier emotional regulation.
FREE ASSOCIATION
Clients are encouraged to verbalise their thoughts and feelings without censorship during therapy sessions. This unstructured dialogue often reveals patterns of hostility or resentment stemming from suppressed aggression.
For instance, a client who frequently expresses frustration with colleagues may uncover deeper, unconscious anger tied to earlier experiences of feeling undervalued or controlled. Free association helps connect current aggression with its roots, allowing for better self-awareness and resolution.
TRANSFERENCE OF AGGRESSION
Clients may unconsciously project their aggressive feelings onto the therapist, re-enacting unresolved conflicts from childhood. For example, hostility toward the therapist may reflect unresolved anger towards a parental figure.
By analysing this transference, the therapist helps the client understand the origins of their aggression. This process facilitates emotional processing and encourages healthier ways of managing these emotions in real-life relationships.
EXPLORATION OF CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES
Freud emphasised the importance of childhood relationships in shaping adult behaviour. Aggression often originates in early life experiences, such as harsh discipline, neglect, or unmet emotional needs.
Unresolved feelings of anger or frustration toward caregivers can persist into adulthood, influencing behaviour in relationships, work, and social contexts. Psychoanalysis explores these formative experiences to uncover the roots of aggression, helping clients process and integrate these emotions more constructively.
FREUDIAN INSIGHTS INTO SPECIFIC TYPES OF AGGRESSION
SOCIAL AGGRESSION
Freud’s theory explains social aggression (e.g., bullying, gossiping) as a manifestation of defence mechanisms like displacement or projection.
For example, a school bully may project their own feelings of inadequacy onto a victim, using aggression to alleviate inner conflict. Recognising this dynamic can help educators and counsellors develop effective intervention strategies.
SEXUAL JEALOUSY
Freud’s Oedipus Complex offers an intricate explanation for jealousy-related aggression. Repressed feelings of competition or inadequacy from childhood may resurface in adult relationships, leading to behaviours such as possessiveness or hostility towards perceived romantic rivals.
For instance, an individual may react aggressively to a partner’s interactions with others, driven by unresolved childhood conflicts with a same-sex parent.
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
Freud’s theory sheds light on unconscious factors contributing to domestic violence. Aggressive behaviours in intimate relationships may stem from repressed emotions, such as guilt, inadequacy, or frustration, which are redirected toward a partner.
For example, a perpetrator may unconsciously displace feelings of powerlessness or failure into aggression within the home. Therapy that explores these unconscious triggers can facilitate greater self-awareness and a reduction in violent behaviours.
OEDIPUS COMPLEX
Aggression can stem from unresolved feelings tied to Freud’s Oedipus Complex, in which a child experiences jealousy and hostility toward their same-sex parent. These repressed emotions may later manifest as displaced aggression toward others.
For instance, unresolved hostility toward a father figure may lead an individual to exhibit disproportionate aggression toward male authority figures in adulthood
FREUDIAN EXPLANATIONS FOR REAL-LIFE EXAMPLES
Freudian theory offers insight into how unresolved aggression manifests in everyday scenarios:
A Toddler Throws a Tantrum in a Supermarket When Denied Sweets
Explanation: This is an example of the ego struggling to mediate between the id’s demand for gratification and external constraints. The toddler’s id desires the sweets immediately, but the ego, still developing, cannot fully manage the frustration caused by parental or situational limits. The tantrum reflects the ego’s inability to regulate the id’s impulses in the face of environmental constraints.
John Didn’t Get the Pay Rise He Was Hoping For at Work. When He Got Home, He Kicked the Cat.
Explanation: This is an example of displacement. John’s id is frustrated and angry at his boss but cannot express this aggression directly due to societal and professional constraints enforced by his superego. To relieve the tension, his ego redirects the aggression to a safer target—the cat.
Sandra’s Boyfriend Dumped Her, So She Played Call of Duty for Four Hours Straight.
Explanation: This illustrates sublimation. Sandra’s ego channels her aggressive impulses into a socially acceptable outlet—a video game. By playing a violent game, she symbolically acts out her aggression in a way that satisfies her id without violating the constraints of her superego.
A Teenager Slams Their Bedroom Door After Being Told They Can’t Go to a Party.
Explanation: This demonstrates displacement. The teenager’s id is angry at their parent for enforcing the rule, but their superego discourages direct confrontation. Instead, the aggression is redirected toward a physical object (the door), providing temporary relief for their frustration.
After Remaining Calm All Lesson While His Class Played Up, Mr Sloane Suddenly Punched a Pupil Who Talked.
Explanation: This reflects repressed aggression followed by an uncontrolled outburst. Throughout the lesson, Mr Sloane’s superego suppressed his aggressive impulses, creating tension in the unconscious. When the ego could no longer contain the pressure, the aggression erupted disproportionately at the pupil.
James, Feeling Humiliated by His Friend’s Public Criticism, Made Sarcastic Remarks All Evening.
Explanation: This is an example of reaction formation. James unconsciously represses his anger and humiliation to avoid open confrontation. Instead, he adopts the opposite behaviour by masking his aggression as sarcasm, which provides a subtle release while adhering to social norms.
After Years of Bottling Up His Anger Toward His Father, Andrew Suddenly Had a Breakdown and Quit His Job.
Explanation: This is a case of long-term repressed aggression leading to psychological collapse. Andrew’s superego suppressed his feelings of resentment toward his father, but the unresolved tension accumulated over time. When his ego became overburdened, the aggression manifested as a breakdown, disrupting his ability to function
EVALUATION OF FREUD’S THEORY IN RELATION TO AGGRESSION
Freud’s theory provides a unique perspective on aggression by focusing on unconscious drives, defence mechanisms, and childhood conflicts. However, it is not without significant limitations. This evaluation examines its strengths and weaknesses in relation to aggression, focusing on research evidence, scientific validity, social implications, and practical considerations.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE: IS THERE ANY?
Freud’s theories are based primarily on subjective case studies, such as "Little Hans" or "Dora," which provide detailed qualitative data but lack scientific rigour.
LIMITED EMPIRICAL SUPPORT
Concepts like repression, Thanatos, and the unconscious are difficult to operationalise and test scientifically. For example, it is impossible to measure unconscious aggression or confirm repressed memories as direct causes of violent behaviour.
In contrast, biological approaches to aggression offer measurable evidence. Brain imaging studies (e.g., Gorka et al., 2013) have demonstrated the role of the amygdala in regulating emotional responses, providing robust scientific data to support aggression theories.
PSYCHOANALYTIC RESEARCH
Freud relied on therapist-led interpretations, such as dream analysis or free association, which are subjective and prone to bias. For instance, aggression identified through dream symbols (e.g., destruction or conflict) relies heavily on the therapist's perspective.
Bandura’s research (1961) challenges Freud’s catharsis hypothesis, showing that exposure to aggression, such as in the Bobo doll experiment, increases aggression rather than reduces it.
SCIENTIFIC BASIS: CRITICISMS
Freud’s theories do not meet modern scientific standards.
UNFALSIFIABILITY
Freud’s ideas, such as the unconscious mind or Thanatos, are unfalsifiable. This means they cannot be disproven, as evidence against them can always be interpreted as further support. For example, denial of repressed aggression might itself be considered evidence of repression.
This unfalsifiability limits Freud’s theory’s credibility as a scientific explanation for aggression.
SUBJECTIVE CASE STUDIES
Freud’s reliance on anecdotal data (e.g., case studies) lacks generalisability and objectivity. For instance, his conclusions from a single patient cannot reliably explain aggression across diverse populations.
CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE
Freud’s catharsis model, which suggests that releasing aggression reduces its intensity, is contradicted by studies like Bushman (2002), which found that venting aggression often increases hostility rather than diminishing it.
SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS: CONTROVERSIES AND SENSITIVITIES
Freud’s theories have been criticised for their social implications, particularly in the context of parenting, gender, and accessibility.
BLAMING PARENTS (PARTICULARLY MOTHERS)
Freud’s emphasis on childhood experiences often shifts responsibility for aggression onto parents, especially mothers. For example, unresolved Oedipal conflicts or oral fixation are frequently linked to maternal behaviours, perpetuating guilt and blame within families.
MISOGYNY AND ALPHA BIAS
Freud’s theories are criticised as misogynistic, particularly in his views on the Electra complex and the supposed weaker development of the superego in women. This bias undermines the application of his theories to understanding aggression in women and reinforces gender stereotypes.
A THEORY FOR THE ELITE
Psychoanalysis is time-consuming and expensive, making it a luxury treatment accessible primarily to the wealthy. This limits its practical use for managing aggression across broader socio-economic groups.
PRACTICAL LIMITATIONS
Freud’s theories face practical challenges in addressing aggression:
TIME AND COST
Psychoanalysis is a long-term process, requiring years of therapy and significant financial investment. For instance, compared to shorter interventions like CBT or anger management programmes, Freud’s approach is impractical in cases where quick results are needed.
EFFECTIVENESS
While Freud’s methods provide insight into the origins of aggression, their impact on reducing violent behaviour is inconsistent. Cognitive-behavioural approaches are preferred for their measurable outcomes and faster results.
SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Freud’s theory focuses primarily on internal drives and neglects external influences on aggression, such as:
TRAUMA OR ABUSE: External stressors like abuse, poverty, or neglect are major contributors to aggressive behaviour but are not adequately addressed in Freud’s framework.
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES: Aggression varies across cultures, which Freud’s universal theories fail to account for.
COMPARISON WITH BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES
Freud’s psychodynamic theory contrasts with biological explanations of aggression in several key ways:
FOCUS ON DRIVES: Freud attributes aggression to unconscious drives and childhood conflicts, while biological theories emphasise brain structures (e.g., the amygdala), neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin), and genetic predispositions.
EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE: Biological studies, such as those using fMRI scans, provide measurable data, while Freud’s theories rely on subjective interpretation.
NATURE VS NURTURE: Freud’s approach incorporates both innate drives and environmental factors, while biological approaches often prioritise genetic and physiological explanations.
CONCLUSION
Freud’s theory provides a profound psychological perspective on aggression, focusing on unconscious drives, defence mechanisms, and childhood conflicts. However, its limitations include a lack of empirical support, unfalsifiability, and practical accessibility. While Freud’s insights remain valuable for understanding the deeper roots of aggression, modern approaches, such as biological explanations and social learning theory, offer more scientifically robust and practical solutions. Integrating Freud’s ideas with contemporary evidence-based methods allows for a more comprehensive understanding of aggression.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATIONS OF AGGRESSION
The Edexcel Specification requires students to compare and contrast the biological/evolutionary explanation of aggression with the psychodynamic explanation.
NATURE VS NURTURE
The biological/evolutionary explanation of aggression predominantly supports the nativist (nature) perspective. It suggests that aggression is an innate characteristic, driven by genetics and evolutionary processes. For example, traits like aggression are considered to enhance survival and reproductive success, ensuring they are passed down through natural selection.
In contrast, Freud’s psychodynamic approach incorporates both nature and nurture. While Freud acknowledges the innate aspects of aggression through the presence of eros (life instinct) and thanatos (death instinct), he also emphasises the role of early childhood experiences and environmental factors. According to Freud, our upbringing, particularly our relationships with caregivers, influences the development of our defence mechanisms, which in turn shape how we express aggression. For instance, a child exposed to harsh discipline may repress aggressive impulses, leading to maladaptive behaviours later in life.
DEVELOPMENTAL FOCUS
Both approaches share an emphasis on child development, but they conceptualise it differently. Freud’s psychodynamic theory proposes that children develop the id first, followed by the ego, with the superego emerging around age 5 as a result of socialisation. The superego regulates aggressive impulses generated by the id, with the ego mediating between the two.
Similarly, biological psychology highlights developmental stages of brain maturation. Early in life, the right hemisphere, associated with emotional processing, dominates brain activity. By the age of 5, the left hemisphere, which governs language and logical faculties, becomes more active. This shift coincides with a decline in physical aggression and an increase in social aggression, as observed in Mara Brendgen’s study of twins.
FUNCTIONAL SIMILARITIES
The two approaches align in their explanation of the mechanisms underlying aggression. The limbic system, particularly the amygdala, plays a central role in generating emotional responses like aggression and fear. This system operates much like Freud’s id, as it is responsible for basic instincts and desires. Meanwhile, the pre-frontal cortex acts similarly to Freud’s ego, regulating and deciding how to respond to impulses from the limbic system. For example, the pre-frontal cortex can override an immediate aggressive reaction to act in a socially acceptable manner, mirroring the ego’s mediating function.
VIEW OF AGGRESSION AS NECESSARY
Both approaches see aggression as a necessary part of life but differ in their framing. From a biological perspective, aggression is an adaptive behaviour that enhances a species' ability to survive and reproduce. For example, aggression may be used to protect resources, secure mates, or defend offspring.
Freud, on the other hand, views aggression as a component of thanatos, the death instinct, which works in tandem with eros to restrain the id. In this framework, aggression serves a psychological purpose, channelling destructive impulses in a way that preserves mental stability. However, Freud and biological psychology agree that aggression becomes dangerous when it is improperly regulated. Poor control of aggression, whether through an underdeveloped pre-frontal cortex or an imbalanced psyche, can result in harm to both the aggressor and those around them.
CONCLUSION
While the biological and psychodynamic approaches to aggression differ in their emphasis on nature versus nurture and their methods of explanation, they share significant similarities. Both highlight the importance of early development and propose dual systems for managing aggression. The biological approach benefits from empirical evidence, such as brain imaging studies, while the psychodynamic approach provides a nuanced perspective on the interplay between instinctual drives and environmental influences. Together, these theories offer complementary insights into the complexities of aggression.
EXEMPLAR ESSAY
Evaluate the biological explanation of aggression. In your evaluation, you must make at least one comparison with the psychodynamic explanation of aggression.
An 8-mark “compare” question awards 4 marks for describing the biological explanation of aggression (AO1) and 4 marks for evaluating it (AO3). A conclusion is required to achieve the top band (7-8 marks).
DESCRIPTION
The biological explanation of aggression is rooted in evolutionary theory, which is based on the principle of descent with modification. According to this theory, parents pass on their characteristics to their offspring, and through the process of natural selection, traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more prevalent over generations.
Aggression can be explained by its survival value, as it enables individuals to protect themselves, their mates, and their offspring. This evolutionary perspective is closely linked to the fight-or-flight response, which is regulated by the amygdala. When faced with a threat, the brain triggers this response by increasing levels of dopamine and reducing serotonin, preparing the individual to either confront the threat aggressively or flee from it.
The amygdala plays a central role in processing threats, influencing whether the individual reacts with fear or aggression. The pre-frontal cortex then interprets signals from the amygdala and regulates decision-making, helping to determine whether the individual acts on aggressive impulses.
EVALUATION
The biological explanation of aggression is supported by substantial empirical evidence, making it a scientifically robust theory. For example, brain imaging techniques such as PET scans provide objective data showing activity in the amygdala and pre-frontal cortex during aggressive responses. Furthermore, animal studies, such as research on aggression in primates, have demonstrated that changes in brain chemistry (e.g., serotonin levels) correspond to aggressive behaviour, supporting the biological approach’s generalisability to humans through the animal model.
In contrast, the psychodynamic explanation of aggression, as proposed by Freud, is less scientific. Freud’s theories rely on case studies and subjective interpretations, which lack empirical validation. For example, Freud’s concept of Thanatos, or the death instinct, cannot be directly measured or observed, making it unfalsifiable. Additionally, Freud rejected animal studies, arguing that they fail to capture the unique complexities of human behaviour, further limiting the scientific credibility of the psychodynamic approach.
Despite these differences, there are notable similarities between the two theories. The biological approach locates aggression within specific regions of the brain, such as the amygdala for threat response and the pre-frontal cortex for rational control. Similarly, Freud’s psychodynamic theory attributes aggression to the unconscious mind (id) and rational decision-making to the conscious mind (ego). Both theories propose a dual-system model where one part drives aggression while another regulates it.
However, the biological explanation is more empirically grounded. Techniques like PET scans and fMRI provide tangible evidence for the biological underpinnings of aggression, whereas Freud’s theories remain speculative and based on subjective interpretation.
CONCLUSION
Both the biological and psychodynamic explanations offer valuable insights into aggression. However, the advent of brain imaging and advances in neuroscience have given the biological approach a stronger empirical foundation. In contrast, the psychodynamic approach remains highly subjective and less scientifically rigorous. While the two theories share some conceptual similarities, such as distinguishing between instinctive and rational processes, the biological explanation is more credible due to its reliance on measurable evidence and scientific methodology.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 MARK EACH):
Robyn has just studied Freud in her psychology class. She realises her friend Liz may be stuck in one of Freud’s stages as Liz bites her nails, smokes, and is cynical. Which stage might Liz be fixated in?
A: The oral stage
B: The anal stage
C: The phallic stage
D: The latency stage [1 mark]
Liz displays characteristics associated with biting her nails and smoking. If Liz were fixated in the anal stage instead, what behaviours might she exhibit?
a) Excessive tidiness or messiness
b) Cynicism and sarcasm
c) Overeating or drinking
d) Immaturity and dependency [1 mark]
Freud believed fixations occur due to unresolved conflicts during specific stages of development. What might cause fixation during the oral stage?
a) Overindulgence or frustration in feeding
b) Excessive toilet training
c) Rivalry for parental attention
d) Lack of peer interaction [1 mark]
If Liz's fixation is at the phallic stage, what kind of issues might she experience according to Freud?
a) Difficulties with trust and dependency
b) Struggles with authority and gender identity
c) Preoccupation with cleanliness and control
d) Withdrawal and lack of social skills [1 mark]
SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS (2–6 MARKS EACH):
Explain the concept of catharsis and how it relates to Freud’s theory of aggression. [2 marks]
Define displacement and provide an example of how it might manifest in everyday behaviour. [3 marks]
Identify and describe two defence mechanisms other than displacement. [4 marks]
Compare sublimation and projection as ego defence mechanisms. Include examples in your answer. [6 marks]
A student is embarrassed by failing a test but refuses to acknowledge their distress and instead spends hours studying. Identify the defence mechanism and explain its function. [4 marks]
How might repression protect an individual from psychological harm? Give an example. [4 marks]
Compare and contrast displacement and sublimation, explaining their role in managing aggressive impulses. Include examples in your answer. [6 marks]
Liz frequently accuses her friend of being jealous when, in reality, Liz herself feels jealous. Identify the defence mechanism involved and explain how it functions. [3 marks]
EXTENDED QUESTIONS (10–16 MARKS):
Evaluate Freud’s theory of psychosexual development
You may find it helpful to include:Application to real life
Comparison with other explanations
Methodology
Research evidence [10 marks]
Compare the biological explanation of aggression with Freud’s psychodynamic explanation of aggression
This question prompts an evaluation of both the biological and psychodynamic perspectives on aggression, highlighting their similarities and differences. [16 marks]
