BOWLBY’S MATERNAL DEPRIVATION HYPOTHESIS
Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation.
BOWLBY’S MATERNAL DEPRIVATION HYPOTHESIS
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis was the precursor to his monotropic theory of attachment and, as a result, contained many of the same assertions; for example,
The belief that infants need one qualitatively, important relationship in their formative years (critical period) with a, primary-caregiver who is warm and affectionate.
Also central to Bowlby’s hypothesis, is the continuity of the relationship between primary caregiver and infant. According to Bowlby, the relationship must have no separations and the primary caregiver and infant must have continuous contact. This is known as the “continuity hypothesis’.
Critical Period: Bowlby hypothesised that infants who received continuous disruptions in their attachment to their primary caregiver in the first five years of their life, but especially the first two and a half years, would be at risk of “affectionless-psychopathy “and relationship problems;
BOWLBY’S MATERNAL DEPRIVATION HYPOTHESIS
Before formulating his attachment theory, Bowlby examined the consequences of maternal deprivation on children. A critical study in this regard is his "44 Thieves Study."
Maternal deprivation refers to the absence of emotional care typically provided by a primary caregiver during a child's development.
Bowlby contended that attachment was essential for children's healthy emotional and social development. He likened maternal love to vitamins for physical health, suggesting that its absence could lead to affectionless psychopathy and emotional maladjustment later in life. Thus, maternal love was seen as crucial for optimal mental development.
Bowlby also asserted that the loss or prolonged separation from an attachment figure during the critical period could result in emotional disturbances. Such separation could only be detrimental if it occurred before the age of two and a half and if no suitable substitute was available, sensitive to the child's needs. Adequate emotional care from a substitute could prevent deprivation and mitigate the potential for long-term psychological harm.
The consequences of maternal deprivation were thought to include an inability to form bonds with others, an avoidant or dismissive attachment style, and a heightened risk of depression. Individuals experiencing these outcomes might be diagnosed with attachment disorders due to their emotional maladjustments.
BOWLBY’S FORTY-FOUR THIEVES STUDY
Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory drew heavily from his 44 Thieves Study, conducted in 1944. This study involved an analysis of case histories of children attending a child guidance clinic. Among them, 44 had committed theft and displayed persistent offending, while another 44 constituted a control group.
BOWLBY'S 44 THIEVES STUDY 1944: AIMS, HYPOTHESIS, PROCEDURES, DESIGN, PARTICIPANTS, METHOD, RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS
AIMS:
Bowlby's study aimed to explore the impact of maternal deprivation on emotional development and delinquent behaviour in children. He was particularly interested in understanding if early separations from the mother or primary caregiver were linked to later antisocial behaviour.
HYPOTHESIS:
The hypothesis posited that children who experienced prolonged separation from their mothers during the critical first five years of life would exhibit higher rates of emotional maladjustment and delinquency.
PROCEDURES:
The study involved an in-depth examination of the backgrounds of 44 adolescent thieves referred for stealing and a comparison with another group of 44 children who had emotional problems but did not exhibit delinquent behaviour.
DESIGN:
Bowlby's study utilised a correlational design, examining whether the length of separation was positively correlated with the severity of juvenile delinquency.
PARTICIPANTS:
The participants included 44 juvenile thieves referred to the Child Guidance Clinic where Bowlby worked and 44 control participants. The individuals were selected based on their stealing behaviour (thieves) or emotional problems (control group).
The participants included 44 juvenile thieves referred to the Child Guidance Clinic, and 44 control participants were selected based on their presentation of emotional problems without any history of theft.
METHOD:
Bowlby employed a combination of methods, including clinical interviews with the children and their families, psychological assessments, and the collection of detailed case histories, to gather comprehensive data on each participant's early life experiences, especially about maternal separation.
RESULTS:
The study revealed that a significant portion of the thieves (more than half) had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers during their early years, in stark contrast to a minimal number in the control group.
Specifically, 14 of the thieves were diagnosed with affectionless psychopathy, indicating a lack of empathy, guilt, and concern for others, which Bowlby linked to their early experiences of maternal deprivation.
A subgroup within the thieves, labelled "affectional psychopaths" (32%), lacked typical signs of affection, a sense of responsibility, or shame for their actions. This subgroup had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers during early childhood, often due to hospitalisation or foster care, which Bowlby considered a causal factor for their later emotional difficulties.
CONCLUSIONS:
Bowlby concluded that early separation from the mother or primary caregiver could lead to severe emotional and behavioural issues, including affectionless psychopathy and a predisposition towards delinquency. This foundational research contributed significantly to the development of attachment theory, highlighting the critical importance of a stable and continuous relationship between the child and their primary caregiver during the early formative years for healthy psychological development.
EVALUATION OF THE FORTY- FOUR THIEVES STUDY
There is other research support for Bowlby’s ideas, for example:
Support for the idea that a lack of emotional support and maternal love can damage attachments comes from Marian Radke-Yarrow et al. (1985), who studied severely depressed mothers unable to provide emotional care to their children. The study found that 55% of the depressed mothers' children had insecure attachments, compared to only 29% in a control group of non-depressed mothers, supporting Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory.
Evidence for the disruption of attachment during the critical period causing later emotional disturbances is provided by Bifulco et al. (1992). Their study focused on women who had been separated from their mothers due to death or prolonged separation for over a year. Bifulco found that 25% of these women later experienced depression or an anxiety disorder, compared to only 15% in a control group with no separation. Importantly, those who experienced the most severe problems had suffered the loss before the age of 6, supporting Bowlby's concept of a critical period.
However, Bowlby’s research on the forty-four thieves has been heavily criticised.
One significant criticism of Bowlby's research is its heavy reliance on retrospective information, necessitating parents and children to recall and recount events many years prior. This approach inherently risks introducing inaccuracies due to the fallibility of human memory over time. Another illustrative example of the problems with this data type is the potential influence of social desirability bias on participants' responses. For instance, when parents are asked about the time they spent away from their children during those early years, they may underreport or alter these durations due to the social stigma associated with leaving young children for extended periods. Admitting prolonged separations might not be socially desirable, as it conflicts with societal expectations and norms regarding parenting and caregiver presence. Consequently, parents might consciously or subconsciously modify their accounts to appear more attentive or present than they were, thus skewing the data Bowlby collected and potentially affecting the study's findings and conclusions. Therefore, this reliance on retrospective reporting raises questions about the reliability of the evidence supporting Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis and its conclusions.
WHO ELSE WAS HOME?
Furthermore, Bowlby's study did not sufficiently account for who cared for the child during these separations. The quality of substitute care—whether the child was looked after by a close relative, placed in foster care, or admitted to a hospital—could significantly mitigate or exacerbate the effects of separation. This aspect was not systematically controlled for in his study, leaving a gap in understanding the nuanced impacts of different separation contexts on child development.
CORRELATIONS DON’S SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT
Furthermore, the findings of Bowlby's study were derived from correlational data, which inherently limits the ability to establish causation. This is a significant methodological limitation, as it opens up the possibility that other factors may account for the observed behaviours rather than disruptions in attachment per se. For instance, children from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds may have a higher likelihood of hospitalisation not directly due to neglect or lack of care but because of factors associated with poverty, such as poorer access to preventive healthcare or living conditions with inadequate sanitation. Consequently, these socio-economic factors might increase the risk of illnesses that necessitate hospital stays, inadvertently leading to separations from the primary caregiver.
Therefore, poverty and its associated challenges could act as confounding variables that are responsible for the delinquent or affectionless psychopathy behaviours observed in the study rather than the separation from the mother or primary caregiver. This complexity suggests that the relationship between early separation and later behavioural outcomes is not straightforward and can be influenced by myriad interrelated factors. Recognising the potential for such confounding variables is crucial in interpreting the results of Bowlby's study and understanding the multifaceted nature of attachment and behavioural development.
ALTERNATIVE RESEARCH: ROBERTSON AND ROBERSTON
James and Joyce Robertson conducted influential studies critically examining John Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis. Their work, particularly through observing children experiencing separation from their primary caregivers, offered valuable insights into the effects of caregiver absence and the importance of substitute care. Below is a brief synopsis of their key studies, focusing on "Little John" and their foster care research, which provided a foundation for their critique of Bowlby's theory.
LITTLE JOHN STUDY
Background: The study of Little John documented the experiences of a 17-month-old boy placed in a residential nursery for nine days while his mother was hospitalized.
Findings: The film "A Two-Year-Old Goes to Hospital" showed John's distress and deterioration in behaviour during his stay, highlighting the negative impact of separation from his mother and the inadequacy of care in mitigating his distress. John's experience was used to argue that the lack of a continuous, warm, and intimate relationship with the primary caregiver, even for a short period, could lead to significant emotional and developmental issues, initially supporting Bowlby's hypothesis.
FOSTER CARE STUDIES
Background: The Robertsons also documented cases where young children were placed in temporary foster care instead of institutional settings during their mothers' hospitalizations.
Findings: Contrary to the distress observed in the Little John study, children placed in nurturing and responsive foster care environments exhibited less distress and more positive developmental outcomes. Notably, the case of Laura, a young child who was placed in a supportive foster home, showcased how a caring and stable substitute care environment could prevent the negative effects of separation from the primary caregiver.
SYNOPSIS AND CRITIQUE OF BOWLBY'S THEORY
The contrast between Little John's experience in an institutional setting and the positive outcomes for children in foster care led the Robertsons to challenge several aspects of Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis:
The Impact of Substitute Care: The Robertsons highlighted that the quality and responsiveness of substitute care could significantly mitigate the negative impacts of separation, suggesting that separation outcomes were not as universally detrimental as Bowlby proposed.
Flexibility in Attachment Formation: Their observations suggested that children could form meaningful attachments beyond the early critical period identified by Bowlby, indicating more flexibility in the attachment process than previously thought.
Emphasis on Emotional Needs: The Robertsons advocated for the importance of addressing the emotional needs of separated children, underscoring that with adequate support, children could maintain their developmental trajectory despite temporary separations from their primary caregivers.
CONTINUED EVALUATION OF THE MATERNAL DEPRIVATION THEORY
In summary, the Robertsons' studies provided empirical evidence that challenged the universality of Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis. By demonstrating the importance of the caregiving environment and the potential for children to adapt to separations with appropriate support, their work contributed to a more nuanced understanding of attachment and separation.
OPERATIONALISE SEPARATION:
Bowlby's theory does not precisely define the duration of attachment disruption required to be considered maternal deprivation. This determinism implies that even short-term disruptions could lead to emotional developmental issues, which does not align with empirical evidence. Kagan et al. (1978) found no direct causal link between separation and later emotional and behavioural difficulties, undermining Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory. Bowlby did not specify whether 'separation' referred to events such as going out for an evening, parents working part-time or full-time, a week-long hospital stay, or other circumstances. The ambiguity surrounding the term 'separation' raises several questions: Are frequent brief separations more or less impactful than prolonged absences due to illness or other reasons?
Within Bowlby's study, there were instances where children had been separated from their mothers for relatively brief periods and longer periods. This variability presents a challenge in directly attributing delinquent behaviour to maternal separation, especially considering that many children undergo short-term separations without developing antisocial or psychopathic tendencies.
PRIVATION, SEPARATION OR DEPRIVATION
One major criticism of Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory is the lack of clarity regarding whether the observed children had initially formed attachments that were subsequently broken (deprivation) or had never formed attachments in the first place (privation). Rutter (1981) argued for the need to distinguish between these two scenarios, asserting that a lack of initial attachment and privation would have more severe effects on a child's mental development than deprivation and the subsequent breaking of an attachment bond. This distinction raises questions about whether the children exhibiting "emotionless psychopathy" in Bowlby's study had truly experienced maternal deprivation or privation, potentially undermining Bowlby's theory.
Despite the conflation of concepts such as deprivation, separation, and privation in Bowlby's work, there is an underlying truth to his assertion that stability and love are crucial for infants during their formative years. Bowlby's attachment theory played a pivotal role in shaping child-rearing practices, especially in the context of the post-war era, which saw a significant number of children orphaned and displaced. His insights into the importance of a continuous and affectionate bond between children and their caregivers led to substantial changes in how institutions managed the care of children.
ADVANTAGES
Before Bowlby's influential research, it was common practice for children in hospitals or orphanages to be kept apart from their mothers or primary caregivers, often with strict limitations on visitation. This approach was based on prevailing medical and institutional policies prioritising hygiene and routine over emotional bonds. Bowlby's findings challenged these practices, highlighting the detrimental effects of prolonged separation on children's emotional and psychological well-being.
The impact of Bowlby's theory extended beyond academic circles, influencing policy and leading to significant reforms in childcare institutions. His advocacy for the need for children to have regular and meaningful contact with their caregivers prompted a shift towards more child-centric approaches to care. Hospitals and orphanages began to adopt policies that facilitated rather than restricted parental involvement and visitation, recognising the critical role of attachment in child development.
Moreover, Bowlby's work catalysed a broader societal recognition of the importance of parental presence and involvement in the early years of a child's life. This contributed to changes in parental leave policies and practices in various contexts, supporting parents in maintaining a close and continuous relationship with their infants.
In summary, despite methodological and conceptual criticisms, Bowlby's emphasis on the necessity of stability and love in the early years has left a lasting legacy. His theory underscored the fundamental importance of healthy attachment bonds, driving significant real-world changes in child-rearing practices and the care of children in institutional settings and emphasising the value of nurturing emotional connections from an early age.
