THE RESEARCH REPORT

February 9, 2024 Rebecca Sivyer

CONVENTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Reporting psychological investigations. Note that sometimes research is called a report, investigation, thesis or paper

If you want to prove a psychological theory, you must research. This research must follow a very specific formula:

Sections of a scientific report and how you could be questioned in an exam.

Title: You could be asked to write one and describe the conventions
Abstract: You could be asked to describe the conventions
Introduction: You could be asked to describe the conventions
Hypotheses: You could be asked to write one and describe the conventions
Method: You could be asked to write one and describe the conventions
Ethics: You could be asked to write one and describe the conventions
Results: You could be asked to write one and describe the conventions
Discussion: You could be asked to describe the conventions
Referencing: You could be asked to write one and describe the conventions
Appendices: You could be asked to describe the conventions

DESIGNING RESEARCH/INVESTIGATIONS/REPORTS

TITLE:

Title of research

ABSTRACT:

A summary of the study – usually about 150 words. It includes brief highlights of each part of the research, e.g., aims, hypothesis, and design of the study results. Reading an abstract is a lot quicker than reading a whole research paper. The idea of abstracts is so researchers can quickly read them to see if the research is relevant.

INTRODUCTION:

The introduction has four parts to it.

Summary of Available Research: This part briefly overviews what previous studies have found in the same area of interest. It also mentions any criticisms or limitations identified in past research.
Justification: Here, the researcher explains why the study is being conducted. This could include gaps in current knowledge, practical implications, or the topic's relevance to everyday life.
Aims: The aims section outlines the specific objectives of the study. It describes what the researchers hope to achieve or investigate through their research.
Hypotheses: This part states the expected outcomes of the study, typically in the form of both an alternative (experimental) hypothesis and a null hypothesis. For more details on hypotheses, including how to write them, click here

METHOD:

A method is a recipe for what you did in your research. A good one will mean anyone can replicate your study without asking further questions.

The method is typically divided into six subsections:

Design:
Controls: For more details on how to control extraneous variables, click here
Participants:
Apparatus/ Materials
Procedure:
Ethics

SOME TEACHERS REFER TO THE METHOD AS APFC = AIMS PROCEDURES FINDINGS CONCLUSIONS

DESIGN:

A DESIGN SHOULD INCLUDE:

Choice of the method. E.g. field experiments, naturalistic observation, etc.
Choice of experimental design (if appropriate), e.g. repeated measures.
Choice of observational techniques (if appropriate), e.g. time sampling.
Identification of IV and DV (where appropriate if an experiment).
If it involved correlation or other non-experiment, which co-variables were related?
YOU must operationalise IV, DV and co-variables.

CONTROLS:

Methods used to control extraneous variables, e.g. use of standardised instructions, counterbalancing, single-blind condition, randomly allocating participants to conditions, keeping forms anonymous, slot boxes for anonymity, same time of day, the same temperature of the room, etc.

PARTICIPANTS

Full details of:

• The target population is described in terms such as age, gender or other relevant variables.

• The sampling method used.

• The actual sample.

• How participants were assigned to conditions.

• Details of who was conducting the research, described in terms of age, gender or any other relevant variables.

APPARATUS AND MATERIALS

A description of all the apparatus and materials used.

The source of any questionnaires or scales used should be given, and scoring procedures should be explained.
Examples and answers should be given in the Appendix.
Copies of word lists, questionnaires, etc., should be placed in appendices.
Mark schemes for any tests or questionnaires

PROCEDURES

The researcher conducts a pilot study with ten volunteer participants from a local SEN school.

These should include a description of the steps taken in the research in sufficient detail so that someone unfamiliar with the work could repeat the study. This should include where the research was undertaken, the instructions given to participants, exactly what was done, etc. Details of what was said may be placed in an appendix. Students should ensure they include details of control procedures already mentioned, such as how counterbalancing was achieved, how a single or double-blind condition was achieved, how extraneous variables were controlled, etc.

ETHICS

Participant Age: All participants must be over 16 years old. If not, parental consent is required to ensure legal compliance.

Physical and Psychological Safety: Participants should not be subjected to physical harm or psychological distress during the study.
Deception: Deception should be minimized. Strategies like presumptive consent or prior general agreement can be employed, informing participants of the possibility of deception and ensuring no harm or humiliation will occur. Full disclosure is provided during the debriefing.
Informed Consent: Participants must provide fully informed consent and sign a consent form before participating in the study, understanding the purpose, procedures, and potential risks.
Debriefing: Participants should be debriefed after the study, where any deception is revealed, and the purpose and findings of the study are explained. Participants should be allowed to ask questions and seek clarification.
Right to Withdraw: Participants can withdraw their data if they are dissatisfied or uncomfortable during the study. This right should be emphasized during the informed consent process and reiterated during debriefing.
Voluntary Participation: Participants should be made aware that their participation is voluntary, and they can withdraw from the study at any time without consequence.
Psychologists can navigate the ethical conundrum of deception in research through prior general agreement or presumptive consent.
Prior General Agreement: Researchers can seek general agreement from a sample group similar to the target participants. This involves outlining the general nature of the study, including the possibility of deception, to this sample group. Their agreement to participate under such conditions helps ensure the study's procedures are acceptable to a broader population.
Presumptive consent is a method in which researchers ask a similar group of participants if they mind being deceived about the hypothesis or the true nature of the study. This approach assumes that individuals within this similar group would likely consent to participate even if fully informed about the possibility of deception. It relies on the belief that participants understand the necessity of deception in certain research contexts and are willing to participate if assured of their safety and well-being.
However, it's important to note that while presumptive consent provides valuable insights into participants' likely reactions, it does not replace the need for thorough debriefing after the study. During debriefing, participants receive detailed information about the study's purpose, procedures, and findings, including any instances of deception. This ensures that participants fully understand the study's implications and can confirm consent retroactively.

RESULTS

FOR DETAILED INFORMATION, PLEASE SEE THE SECTIONS ON DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS AND

The results in a research paper are a brief description of the findings, usually presented by measures of central tendency and dispersion displayed in tables or graphs, followed by analysis and then inferential statistics to determine the probability of the results occurring again.

The result section is split into two sections: Descriptive statistics AND Inferential statistics:

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS:: Measures of central tendency, dispersion and percentages displayed in graphs and tables

Once data has been collected, it is essential to summarise it numerically. This quantitative summary is called descriptive statistics and allows researchers to view the data as a whole.

Descriptive statistics are a crucial tool for transforming raw data into a format that is easier to comprehend and interpret. Raw data, consisting of individual data points or values, can be overwhelming and difficult to interpret directly. Descriptive statistics concisely summarise this raw data, allowing researchers to understand key characteristics such as central tendency, variability, and distribution. By organizing and summarizing the data, descriptive statistics make it more accessible and enable researchers to draw meaningful insights and conclusions from the dataset. In essence, descriptive statistics serve as a bridge between raw data and actionable insights, facilitating the process of data analysis and interpretation.

Additionally, descriptive statistics encompass measures of dispersion, such as the range, variance, or standard deviation, which quantify the spread or variability of the data points around the central tendency. Moreover, descriptive statistics may also include percentages, offering insights into the proportion of data falling within specific categories or ranges. These statistics are selected based on the nature of the data collected and are essential for conveying the overall characteristics of the dataset to researchers and readers alike.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: Statistical test choices and results. Rejection or acceptance of Null hypothesis.

However, it's important to note that descriptive statistics only describe the data; they do not assess the probability of the results occurring by chance. Therefore, while descriptive statistics can indicate whether a study has successfully collected and summarised data, they do not determine whether the hypothesis can be rejected. Researchers need to conduct inferential statistical tests to assess the likelihood of the observed results occurring again and determine whether the hypothesis can be rejected.

Below is how out the inferential results section in a research paper:

The critical value of T for N =20 for a one-tailed test where p ≤=0.05 is 60. As the observed value of T (29.5) is less than the critical/table value, the likelihood of my results occurring by chance is less than 5% (p ≤ 0.05). Therefore, I can reject my Null hypothesis and accept my experimental hypothesis.

DISCUSSION

Note there are four parts to a discussion. You could be asked about this in the examination. A typical question could be: “What are the conventions for a discussion?”

Researchers offer some explanations for what they have found,
Considers the theory in light of results and past research (what does it tell us?
Consider the limitations of their study.
Offer ideas for future research (how does the research apply to the real world? What research can we do next?.

IN MORE DETAIL:

Researchers offer some explanations for what they have found:

In this part of the discussion, researchers interpret their findings and provide explanations based on theory and existing research. They analyze the data collected and explain why certain results were obtained. For example, suppose the results indicate a significant reduction in stress levels among participants in the mindfulness intervention group compared to the control group. In that case, researchers may theorize that mindfulness meditation promotes relaxation and reduces physiological arousal, leading to lower stress levels. They may also draw upon existing stress reduction and mindfulness theories to support their interpretations.

Considers results given theory and past research:

Researchers contextualize their findings within the broader theoretical framework and existing literature. They discuss how their results align with or diverge from previous studies and theories. For instance, if prior research has consistently demonstrated the stress-reducing effects of mindfulness meditation, the current study's findings would corroborate these findings and contribute to the cumulative knowledge in the field. On the other hand, if the results contradict previous research, researchers may explain the discrepancies and propose potential reasons for the divergent findings.

Consider the limitations of their study:

Researchers critically evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of their study, acknowledging any limitations that may have influenced the results. This could include sample size, research design, measurement tools, or methodological constraints. For example, if the study had a small sample size or used self-reported measures of stress, researchers would acknowledge these limitations and discuss how they may have affected the validity or generalizability of the findings. By acknowledging limitations, researchers demonstrate transparency and integrity in their research process.

Offer ideas for future research:

Finally, researchers suggest avenues for future research based on the current study's findings. They may propose follow-up studies to address unanswered questions or explore new research questions emerging from their findings. For instance, if the current study found a significant reduction in stress levels among college students following a mindfulness intervention, researchers may recommend longitudinal studies to assess the long-term effects of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction. Additionally, they may suggest investigating the mechanisms underlying the observed effects or exploring the impact of mindfulness interventions on other aspects of mental health and well-being. By offering ideas for future research, researchers contribute to advancing knowledge in the field and guide researchers interested in building upon their work.

REFERENCES

A reference list and a bibliography are sources cited in a document but serve different purposes.

Differences between bibliographies and references:

References:

A reference is primary data, representing the source of information cited in a research paper.
It is a critical component of scholarly communication, ensuring transparency and accountability in the research process.
References are expected to provide accurate and detailed information about the source material, including authorship, publication date, and journal or publisher information.
They allow readers to trace the origins of ideas or findings and verify the evidence presented in the paper.
Properly executed references enable readers to locate the original research paper and assess its credibility and relevance.

Bibliographies:

Bibliographies typically include secondary sources, such as books or review articles, which may reference primary research.
Unlike references, which focus on primary sources, bibliographies may include a broader range of materials consulted during the research process, regardless of whether they were directly cited in the paper.
While bibliographies provide additional reading or contextualise the topic, they may not always provide the same level of detail or accuracy as references.
Books included in bibliographies may become outdated or go out of print, potentially losing the original research cited within them.
Unlike references, which are crucial for establishing the credibility and integrity of scholarly work, bibliographies may not always provide a direct link to the primary sources of information.

HOW DO WRITE A REFERENCE FOR A PSYCHOLOGY PAPER?

For a psychology journal article, a reference typically follows a specific format:

Author(s)’ last name, followed by initials. Year of publication in parentheses. Title of the article. Name of the journal in italics. Volume number (issue number if available), followed by the page range. DOI (Digital Object Identifier) or URL (if available).

For example:

Smith, J. A., & Johnson, L. B. (2019). The effects of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 25(3), 123-135. DOI: 10.1080/12345678.2019.1234567 This format provides readers with all the necessary information to locate and verify the source.

APPENDICES

Appendix: singular / Appendices: plural

APPENDIX: The place where you put things that would disturb the ‘flow’. If you are writing a psychology paper for a class or publication, you may be required to include an appendix. An appendix is found at the end of a paper and contains information that supplements the text, but that is too unwieldy or distracting to include in the main body of the paper.

Copy of advert or information is given when recruiting participants
Copies of consent forms,
Standardised instructions
One copy of the questionnaire/ scale/ material used
or the source of any questionnaires or scales used should be given
The scoring procedures must be explained, e.g., remember to include mark schemes for tests or questionnaires.
Examples and answers should be given.
Copies of operationalised word lists, questionnaires, etc., should be placed in appendices.
Raw data
Debriefing

IMPORTANT!!!!!!!!!!! You could be asked to write an aim, consent form, debriefing form, hypothesis, and method or results section. These marks are worth a lot more. When writing a method or results section, the marks can be as high as 12 marks. Please see the appendices section for advice. CLICK HERE to get advice on how to write them

EXAMPLE ONE: RESEARCH PAPER

TITLE: Title: "Examining the Efficacy of an Eight-Week Mindfulness Meditation Program on Stress Reduction Among College Students: A Randomised Controlled Trial

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to investigate the impact of an eight-week mindfulness meditation program on stress reduction among college students using a randomised controlled trial with an independent group design. The rationale stemmed from concerns regarding the escalating stress levels among college students and the potential benefits of mindfulness interventions. The study assessed whether participating in the mindfulness program significantly reduced self-reported stress levels compared to a control group. Participants were recruited from the college student population and randomly assigned to either the mindfulness intervention or control group. The mindfulness intervention group engaged in weekly meditation sessions, while the control group received no intervention. Pre- and post-assessments of stress levels were conducted using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). The results revealed a significant decrease in stress levels among participants in the mindfulness intervention group compared to the control group, supporting the hypothesis. Ethical considerations, including informed consent, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw, were strictly adhered to throughout the study. These findings provide valuable insights into the efficacy of mindfulness meditation in promoting mental well-being among college students.

INTRODUCTION

In this study, we explore the impact of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction among college students. Previous research suggests that mindfulness practices can positively affect mental health and well-being (Smith et al., 2018). However, some studies have criticized the methodological limitations of previous research, such as small sample sizes and lack of control groups (Jones & Brown, 2019).

The justification for this study stems from the growing concern over rising stress levels among college students and the potential benefits of mindfulness interventions in promoting mental well-being. By investigating the effects of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction, we aim to provide valuable insights into the efficacy of this intervention for college students.

Our study aims to assess whether participating in a mindfulness meditation program for eight weeks significantly reduces self-reported stress levels among college students. Additionally, we seek to explore any potential moderators or mediators of this relationship, such as the frequency of meditation practice or initial stress levels.

Hypothesis: Based on existing literature suggesting that mindfulness meditation can lead to decreased stress levels (Brown et al., 2020), we hypothesise that participants who engage in the mindfulness intervention will report lower stress levels than those in the control group. Conversely, our null hypothesis posits that there will be no significant difference in stress levels between the intervention and control groups.

DESIGN:

The study will utilise a randomised controlled trial with an independent group design with two groups: a mindfulness intervention group and a control group.
The mindfulness intervention group will receive an eight-week mindfulness meditation programme, while the control group will not receive any intervention.

CONTROLS:

To minimise potential confounding variables, participants in both groups will be matched based on demographic characteristics such as age, gender, and academic year.
Standardised instructions will be provided to all participants to ensure consistency in study procedures.
To minimise bias, the researcher will remain blinded to group assignments during data collection and analysis.

PARTICIPANTS:

The target population will consist of college students aged 18-25 years.

Participants will be recruited through campus-wide announcements and undergo screening to ensure they meet the inclusion criteria.

Informed consent will be obtained from all participants before their enrolment in the study.

APPARATUS AND MATERIALS

MINDFULNESS MEDITATION PROGRAMME:

Guided mindfulness meditation audio recordings.

Printed materials providing instructions on mindfulness techniques and exercises.

STANDARDISED SELF-REPORT MEASURE:

Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) questionnaire.

SESSION FACILITIES:

The rooms are quiet and comfortable for conducting mindfulness meditation sessions.

Audio equipment for playing guided meditation recordings.

WRITING MATERIALS: Paper and pens for participants to complete questionnaires and provide written consent.

DATA COLLECTION TOOLS:

Stopwatch for timing meditation sessions and assessments.

Electronic devices are used to record participant responses and administer questionnaires.

MATERIALS FOR CONTROL GROUP: Information pamphlets on stress management techniques (to match the mindfulness intervention group regarding participant expectations).

RECORDING FORMS: Data collection forms for recording participant demographic information, session attendance, and assessment scores.

STORAGE: Secure storage facilities for storing completed questionnaires and research records in compliance with data protection regulations

PROCEDURES

PRE-ASSESSMENT: Participants will complete a baseline assessment of stress levels using a standardised self-report measure such as the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS).
INTERVENTION GROUP: a. Participants in the intervention group will attend weekly mindfulness meditation sessions for eight weeks. b. Each session will last approximately 60 minutes and will include guided mindfulness exercises. c. Participants will be encouraged to practice mindfulness techniques for at least 10 minutes per day at home.
CONTROL GROUP: a. Participants in the control group will not receive any mindfulness intervention during the study period. b. They will be instructed to maintain their usual daily routines and activities.
POST-ASSESSMENT: After the eight-week intervention period, all participants will complete a post-assessment of stress levels using the same standardised measure administered during the pre-assessment.
DATA ANALYSIS: a. The primary outcome measure will be the change in stress levels from pre- to post-intervention. b. Statistical analyses, such as independent t-tests or analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), will be conducted to compare stress levels between the intervention and control groups. c. Additional analyses may explore potential moderators or mediators of the relationship between mindfulness meditation and stress reduction

ETHICS:

The study will adhere to ethical guidelines outlined by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) and the British Psychological Society (BPS).
Informed consent will be obtained from all participants before participating in the study.
Participants will be assured of confidentiality, and their data will be anonymised during analysis and reporting.
Participants will be informed of their right to withdraw from the study without penalty.

RESULTS

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Mean stress level for participants in the mindfulness intervention group: Pre-test = 25.6 (SD = 3.2), Post-test = 20.3 (SD = 2.9). Mean stress level for participants in the control group: Pre-test = 26.1 (SD = 3.5), Post-test = 25.8 (SD = 3.7). Inferential Statistics:

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the change in stress levels between the mindfulness intervention and control groups. The results revealed a statistically significant difference between the two groups (t(38) = 4.27, p < 0.001), indicating that participants in the mindfulness intervention group experienced a greater reduction in stress levels compared to the control group. The effect size (Cohen's d) was calculated to be 1.32, indicating a large effect of the mindfulness intervention on stress reduction. Discussion:

The results of this study provide compelling evidence supporting the effectiveness of mindfulness meditation in reducing stress levels among college students. Participants who engaged in the eight-week mindfulness intervention reported a significant decrease in stress levels compared to those in the control group.

DISCUSSION

This finding aligns with previous research suggesting mindfulness practices can positively affect mental well-being. The observed reduction in stress levels among participants in the mindfulness intervention group underscores the potential benefits of incorporating mindfulness meditation into college wellness programs. Given the high prevalence of stress among college students, interventions aimed at promoting stress reduction are essential for supporting students' overall mental health and academic success. Limitations of this study include the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to bias, and the relatively small sample size. Future research could employ larger sample sizes and objective measures of stress, such as physiological markers, to further validate the findings. Additionally, exploring the long-term effects of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction and academic performance would provide valuable insights into the sustained benefits of this intervention. Overall, the findings contribute to the growing body of literature supporting the efficacy of mindfulness meditation in promoting mental well-being among college students. Incorporating mindfulness practices into college wellness initiatives may help alleviate stress and enhance students' overall quality of life.

EXAMPLE TWO METHOD PAPER

TITLE: "Examining the Effect of Stress Induced by Dot-to-Dot Puzzles on Pulse Rates: A Repeated Measures Design.

ABSTRACT: This study investigated the impact of stress induced by dot-to-dot puzzles on participants' pulse rates using a repeated measures design and related t-test analysis. Participants completed dot-to-dot puzzles with and without a missing dot, serving as stress and control conditions, respectively. Pulse rates were measured before and after completing each puzzle. The null hypothesis was accepted, predicting no significant difference in pulse rates between stress and control conditions. Ethical considerations, including informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing, and protection from harm, were strictly adhered to throughout the study.

INTRODUCTION

Summary of Available Research:

Previous studies have explored various cognitive tasks and the influence of stress on performance. In particular, research has investigated how stressful situations can impact cognitive function, including problem-solving and attention tasks. It is theorized that stress may impair cognitive performance due to its effects on physiological arousal and attentional focus.

JUSTIFICATION

Given the known effects of stress on cognitive function, the researcher hypothesizes that inducing stress through a task such as completing a dot-to-dot puzzle with a missing dot may lead to changes in participants' pulse rates. This hypothesis is grounded in the understanding that stress can elicit physiological responses, including increased heart rate, as the body prepares for a perceived threat.

AIMS

Building upon prior research, the researcher aims to investigate the relationship between stress induced by a dot-to-dot puzzle task and changes in participants' pulse rates. By manipulating the presence of a missing dot in the puzzle, the study seeks to determine whether this stressor affects physiological arousal as measured by pulse rates.

HYPOTHESES

Null Hypothesis (H0): There will be no significant difference in pulse rates between participants completing a dot-to-dot puzzle with a missing dot (stress condition) and those completing a complete dot-to-dot puzzle (no stress condition).

Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Participants completing the dot-to-dot puzzle with a missing dot (stress condition) will exhibit higher pulse rates compared to those completing a complete dot-to-dot puzzle (no stress condition)

METHOD

Design: The study employed a laboratory experiment utilising a Repeated Measures Design. The independent variable (IV) was operationalised as the presence or absence of a dot-to-dot puzzle, specifically modified to remove one dot. The dependent variable (DV) measured participants' pulse rates.

Experimental Design: Repeated Measures Design was selected to minimize individual differences and enhance statistical power.

Identification of Variables:

Independent Variable (IV): Presence or absence of the dot-to-dot puzzle.
Dependent Variable (DV): Measurement of participants' pulse rates.

CONTROL OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

Several measures were implemented to control extraneous variables:

Standardised Instructions: Ensured consistency in task execution across participants.
Consistency in Testing Environment: Maintained uniformity in room conditions and time allotted for task completion.
Double-Blind Technique: Researchers administering the dot-to-dot puzzles were unaware of the conditions, minimizing bias.
Random Allocation of Conditions: Participants were randomly assigned to either the dot-to-dot or no dot-to-dot condition to prevent systematic biases

Many things were controlled in my experiment. Standardised instructions were used (see appendix). The room where the experiment was being carried out was always the same, and the time the participants had to complete the dot-to-dot was always the same. The double-blind technique was used when giving the participants the dot-to-dots (I did not look to see which I was giving them) so that I would not be biased when taking the pulse rates and evaluation apprehension would not occur.

PARTICIPANTS

Target Population: 20 participants aged 16 to 18, comprising males and females, all students at ***** College.

Sampling Method: Opportunistic sampling was employed during lunchtimes to recruit participants.
Participant Allocation: Random assignment was achieved by shuffling dot-to-dot puzzles and distributing them sequentially..

APPARATUS/MATERIALS

Materials used:

Dot-to-dot puzzles were found on the internet. I chose one that was not too obvious and easy but would not take too long to complete. It was the outline of a frog. I then used ‘paint art’ to delete one of the dots on the puzzle. I chose dot 88 near the end of the picture so that the participant would have little time left to complete the puzzle and win a ‘prize’ and, therefore, should feel under stress. I printed 10 of each dot-to-dot.

The following materials were utilised:

Dot-to-dot puzzles obtained from the internet, modified to remove one dot.
Stopwatch for timekeeping during task completion.
Pulse rate monitor for the measurement of participants' pulse rates.
Sweets are used as incentives for participation.

(Appendices provide additional details, including copies of dot-to-dot puzzles, mark schemes and standardised instructions.)

PROCEDURES:

After choosing the dot to dot, I tested the completed one on 4 participants to get an average amount of time that the puzzle took to complete. It came out as one minute. This would be the time limit for the experiment.
During lunchtimes at school, I used an empty, quiet room and brought one participant in at a time (by opportunity sampling).
Participants were briefed on the study's purpose and provided with informed consent forms.
Their pulse was taken for 10 seconds, and this was recorded.
They were then given the next dot-to-dot on the pile to complete. It was double-blind, so I didn’t know which one they had. They were told to begin, and the stopwatch was started. They were given a minute to complete it. If they had not finished after that minute, they were stopped.
Their pulse was taken for another 10 seconds, and this was again recorded. It was also recorded whether the puzzle was a ‘complete dot’ or a ‘missing dot’.
Participants were debriefed and allowed to withdraw their data if desired.
The study's findings were explained, and participants were thanked for participating.

ETHICS IN THE DOT-TO-DOT-STUDY

Hello, and thank you for considering participating in this study. Before you proceed, it's important to understand some key ethical considerations involved:

Informed Consent: Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. By agreeing to participate, you acknowledge that you have been provided information about the study's purpose and procedures. You are free to withdraw at any time without consequences.
Confidentiality and Privacy: Your identity and responses will be confidential and anonymous. Your name will not be associated with your data, ensuring your privacy is protected.
Debriefing: After completing the study, you will receive a full debriefing session where the study's true purpose will be revealed. This includes any instances of deception that may have occurred. You'll have the opportunity to ask questions and express any concerns.
Protection from Harm: Your well-being is our top priority. If, at any point during the study, you feel uncomfortable or distressed, you have the right to withdraw without hesitation. Your safety and comfort are paramount.

By participating in this study, you are contributing to valuable research that may benefit our understanding of certain phenomena. Your involvement is greatly appreciated, and your rights as a participant will be respected throughout the process. If you have any further questions or concerns, please don't hesitate to ask. Thank you

RESULTS:

Descriptive Statistics:

The mean pulse rate for participants in the stress condition (dot-to-dot puzzle with a missing dot) was 78 beats per minute, with a standard deviation of 5. For participants in the no-stress condition (complete dot-to-dot puzzle), the mean pulse rate was 77 beats per minute, with a standard deviation of 4. The range of pulse rates in the stress condition varied from 74 to 83 beats per minute, while in the no-stress condition, it ranged from 72 to 80 beats per minute.

Inferential Statistics:

An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare pulse rates between the stress and no-stress conditions. The results revealed no statistically significant difference in pulse rates between the two conditions (t(18) = 1.12, p = 0.278). Additionally, the effect size (Cohen's d) was calculated to be 0.23, indicating a small effect of the stress manipulation on pulse rates. Consequently, the null hypothesis was accepted, which posited no difference in pulse rates between the stress and no-stress conditions.

DISCUSSION

The findings of this study suggest that inducing stress through the manipulation of dot-to-dot puzzles did not result in significant changes in participants' pulse rates. Despite the theoretical rationale linking cognitive stressors to physiological arousal, the observed results did not support this hypothesis. The lack of a significant difference in pulse rates between the stress and no-stress conditions challenges previous assumptions about the immediate impact of cognitive stress on physiological responses.

These results contribute to understanding stress induction mechanisms and highlight the complexity of stress-related physiological responses. It is possible that the duration or intensity of the stress manipulation in this study was insufficient to elicit significant changes in pulse rates. Alternatively, individual differences in stress sensitivity or coping mechanisms may have influenced the observed outcomes.

Future research could explore additional factors that may moderate the relationship between cognitive stressors and physiological arousal. Longitudinal studies tracking participants' stress responses over time or investigating the effects of varying stress intensities could provide further insights. Additionally, incorporating measures of subjective stress perception alongside physiological indicators may offer a more comprehensive understanding of stress responses.

While the current study did not find evidence of a significant effect of dot-to-dot puzzle-induced stress on pulse rates, it underscores the need for continued investigation into the complex interplay between cognitive stressors and physiological outcomes.

QUESTIONS

Abstract:

What is the purpose of an abstract in a research paper, and why is it important?
Can you describe the key components typically included in an abstract?
How does reading an abstract benefit researchers and readers?

Introduction:

What are the main components of the introduction section in a research paper?
Why is it essential for researchers to summarize available research in the introduction?
How do researchers justify the need for their study in the introduction section?

Method:

Describe the six subsections commonly found in the method section of a research paper.
Why is it crucial for researchers to provide detailed information about their research design?
How do researchers ensure ethical considerations are addressed in the method section?

Results:

What is the purpose of the results section in a research paper?
Can you explain the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?
How do researchers present their findings in the results section?

Discussion:

What are the four main parts of the discussion section, and why are they important?
How do researchers offer explanations for their findings in the discussion section?
Why is it essential for researchers to consider limitations and offer ideas for future research in the discussion?