SYNOPSIS

Throughout history, humanity has grappled with fundamental questions about the nature of existence, the purpose of life, and the structure of reality. The progression of human intellectual development has progressed through four major stages: magic, religion, philosophy, and science.

In the earliest stage, magic, our ancestors attributed the unknown to supernatural forces, attempting to control the unpredictable through rituals and spells. The era of Religion emerged as organised belief systems centred around gods, deities, and moral codes. With the advent of philosophers, humanity embraced reason. Finally, as science emerged, evidence became a requisite for truth.

IN THE BEGINNING

The first Homo Sapiens evolved in Africa 200,000 years ago during the Middle Palaeolithic era (300,000 – 50,000 BCE). By this time, humans had become incredibly intelligent beings who could not only reflect upon themselves and the world around them but could also reflect upon their existence within the world; in other words, they realised they were the object of their consciousness; they had become self-aware. To do this, the brain needed to evolve from being a mechanism that experienced sensations and thoughts to becoming the observer of itself.

With this level of perception, it was only natural that early humans would develop philosophies about the meaning of life and death. The earliest known human burial was in the Middle East c. 100,000 BCE, which indicates that abstract and creative thinking had already begun. But people must have developed philosophical ideas before this date because thinking abstractly and creatively results from having a sophisticated cerebral cortex.

The topic of exactly when and where philosophy first began to develop is still debated, but the simplest answer is that it would have begun the first time someone asked why they were born, what their purpose was, and how they were supposed to understand their lives at any time in the distant past.

The term philosophy may apply to a formalised secular or religious system of thought, personal constructs, or communal understanding of belief, but in each case, the purpose of the system is to develop theories about existence, such as:

• What is the purpose of life?

• What is the meaning of existence?

• Who am I?

• What is my nature?

• Where do I go when I die?

Picture this: you are one of the human beings, living hundreds of thousands of years ago. You're out on the plains of the Serengeti, shooting the breeze with your fellow hunter-gatherers when one of them asks the group,

“What is death, and where do we go when we die?”

COLLECTIVE LEARNING

"If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants."

Because early man lived in the Palaeolithic age, he couldn’t access education and the insight of other people’s wisdom because it didn’t exist yet. The knowledge base of the twenty-first century didn’t happen suddenly; it took a couple of hundred thousand years to accumulate. The phrase “Standing on the shoulders of giants” is a metaphor that means using the understanding gained by major thinkers born before you to make intellectual progress. Isaac Newton exemplified this perfectly by explaining that his ideas didn’t come from him alone. He said that he relied on the ideas of those who had already made significant contributions to scientific knowledge. As a result, Newton didn’t regard himself as a genius.

Collective learning is the uniquely human ability to share, preserve, and build upon knowledge over time. People rely on collective learning when reading a book, attending school, or watching a documentary. The history of science is the story of collective learning. Historians piece evidence across time and continents and show how our collective knowledge developed.

“Scientific discoveries are only as good as the research tools of the day”.

The Middle Palaeolithic era was the very start of this collective learning journey. At the beginning of man’s existence, there were no social constructs, objective truths about existence, and no scholars to learn from. Moreover, living in small, nomadic groups meant little interaction, so the spread of any idea was greatly restricted.

It should be no surprise that the people who lived during this period would have had primitive and mystical ideas about their existence and the objects that inhabited their world. “So that enormous ball of yellow in the sky could have been anything, a god, another world, an 'all-seeing eye,' or even a beast."

The people back then would have been very confused about the behaviour of celestial bodies like the sun. “Why was it so luminous some days but hid behind fluffy white things on other days or disappeared completely - taking with it all light and warmth? Was it displeased? Did something happen to make it go away? Did it watch them? Would they go to it when they died?”

THE THEORY OF MIND (TOM)

The ancestral plains were perilous landscapes where hunters who weren't vigilant faced the constant threat of being taken down by the environment—essentially, it was a matter of kill or be killed. Psychologists posit that human survival in this hostile setting was possible because they recognised that animals possessed independent existences and could act on their own accord. Some psychologists call this cognitive ability the "theory of mind."

The Theory of Mind not only enabled humans to comprehend that the actions and behaviours of other entities were deliberate and voluntary but also played a crucial role in making life-saving decisions. Humans needed to discern animals' intentions swiftly, for instance, by asking themselves, "Is that movement in the meadow a snake? Snakes bite, better run." The capacity to perceive "agency" in other entities was vital for survival and for successful mating, e.g., "Does that person want to kiss me, kill me, or rob me?”

In addition to helping humans make rational decisions, TOM may have sown the seeds for religious thought, as early humans couldn't distinguish between living organisms and the inanimate, ascribing both with the same intentional powers. As a result, some scientists refer to TOM as the 'god faculty.'

THE BIRTH OF THEORIES BASED ON MAGIC

In the early phases of human evolution, early humans likely harboured a fear of natural phenomena such as storms, droughts, and floods due to the severe impact these events could have. This apprehension was further influenced by their inability to differentiate between the sentient and the non-sentient. As a result, it was common for Stone Age people to attribute a theory of mind to objects and phenomena that were, in reality, non-conscious. This belief system extended to the idea that geographical features themselves had souls and that spirits or deities dwelled within them.

Consequently, environmental catastrophes were often perceived as the actions of malevolent beings residing in the sky, rivers, or earth. Similarly, the movements of celestial bodies like the sun, moon, and stars were interpreted as the actions of powerful gods. In response to these beliefs, ancient tribes might have begun worshipping natural forces such as the sun and stars to prevent potential environmental calamities. This inclination to interpret natural occurrences as the work of supernatural entities—such as gods and ancestral spirits—is known as animism.

Animism served as a lifeline, allowing humans to make sense of their surroundings and exert control. Whether it was understanding the sun's rise, the moon's cycles, or the shifting of seasons, magic appeared to unlock the secrets of the cosmos.

As human societies evolved, so did their constructs; this change led to the emergence of more spiritual ideologies, such as shamanism and totemism. Shamanism introduced the pivotal role of shamans, revered as intermediaries who could commune with the spirit realm on behalf of their communities. This spiritual leadership became increasingly vital as societies expanded and developed intricate belief systems.

Totemism, in contrast, brought forth the notion of clans or groups adopting specific animal or natural symbols as emblems of their collective identity. This practice of symbolically aligning with the animal kingdom gained prominence as societies organised themselves into distinct social units.

Although belief systems during this period do not align with modern scientific knowledge, they should not be dismissed as inherently illogical as they were constructed upon rational frameworks that were suitable and deeply significant within the cultural and historical context in which they emerged.

FROM MAGIC TO RELIGION

As time progressed, belief systems progressed from idolising the inanimate to the worship of gods that embodied human-like qualities; culminating in the establishment of organised religions. Throughout this evolution, there was a trend toward more rational and structured belief systems, reflecting the increasing complexity of human knowledge and the advancement of societies. An example of this evolution was the transition to worshipping deities with human traits, a shift that indicated a desire for a more personal connection with the divine. This approach infused celestial beings with human emotions and characteristics, creating a stronger emotional bond and a more relatable form of worship. They also introduced the groundbreaking concept of the soul.

But in the realm of discussions concerning the intersections of magic and religion, a common notion prevails. It suggests a linear progression from primitive worldviews to the objective scrutiny of contemporary scientific analysis as if charting an unwavering path from ignorance to enlightenment; yet, this perspective oversimplifies the intricate relationship between the four belief systems. For example, magic and formalised religion are closely connected as they both rely on the notion of invisible forces or beings that can be influenced or persuaded to act in specific ways. Whether by casting spells, performing rituals, saying prayers, or engaging in other practices, both magic and religious traditions seek a connection with hidden powers to bring about desired outcomes. This intertwining of magic and religion highlights their shared reliance on the idea of unseen forces that have shaped human beliefs and practices throughout history.

Despite these similarities, they do diverge. Magical beliefs tend to be more individualistic and less organised than traditional religions. Traditional religions typically have hierarchical structures, formalised moral codes, and established doctrines. While magical practices may focus on personal desires and goals, religions often emphasise community and moral guidance through scriptures and religious authorities like clergy.

FROM RELIGION TO PHILOSOPHY

Both magical and religious beliefs encountered substantial challenges stemming from the evolving landscape of human thought. Several notable thinkers arose to challenge the conventional notions of God and religion. Epicureanism, for instance, posed the classic problem of evil by questioning the existence of an all-powerful and all-loving god in the face of human suffering. He famously asked,

"Is God willing to prevent evil but not able? Then, he is not omnipotent. Is he able but not willing? Then, he is malevolent. Is he both able and willing? Then whence cometh evil? Is he neither able nor willing? Then why call him God?”

In other words, Epicureans couldn’t understand how God could allow pain and evil to exist.

A century later, Democritus, a proponent of materialism in ancient Greece, proposed that all entities, including the soul, were composed of atoms, rejecting the immaterial attributes often ascribed to the soul in religious doctrines.

Scepticism towards traditional gods was also expressed in the musings of philosophers like Diagoras of Melos and Xenophanes during ancient Greece's heyday. They questioned the anthropomorphic nature of gods and highlighted inconsistencies in religious narratives, paving the way for more secular and rational approaches to understanding the divine.

In the seventeenth century, Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza challenged traditional religious views, particularly those of orthodox Judaism. His most notable work, "Ethics," proposed a pantheistic view of God, suggesting that God and the universe are the same, which went against conventional religious beliefs. He dismissed the notion of a personal God who intervenes in human affairs, instead viewing God as synonymous with nature and the natural world.

Of notable mention is Karl Marx, who famously referred to religion as the "opiate of the masses." He argued that religion, particularly organised religion, functioned as a form of social control that sedated and pacified the working class. By promising rewards in the afterlife and preaching submission to authority, in Marx's view, religion diverted people's attention away from the harsh realities of their earthly existence and the exploitation they faced under capitalism.

These philosophical currents, alongside more contemporary figures like Freud, Christopher Hitchens, Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett and Sam Harris, have left indelible marks on the ongoing discussions surrounding religion's role in society and the validity of religious beliefs.

It should be noted that the demarcations between magic, religion, and science were fluid, particularly during certain historical periods. For example, during the 16th and 17th centuries, there was substantial overlap, and it was common for many members of the Royal Society to entertain beliefs in practices such as alchemy and witchcraft. This intricate interplay highlights the complexity of the transition from magic to religion to science, revealing that the evolution of these domains was anything but a straightforward process.

FROM PHILOSOPHY TO SCIENCE

Philosophy is dead,’ Stephen Hawking once declared, because it ‘has not kept up with modern developments in science, particularly physics.’ It is scientists, not philosophers, who are now ‘the bearers of the torch of discovery in our quest for knowledge’.

Undisputedly, the most pivotal factor in the shift from religious belief to a growth in atheist beliefs was the emergence of scientific rationalism. The discoveries and explanations provided by science began to demystify aspects of the natural world that were previously attributed to divine intervention. In ancient India, for example, the Carvaka or Lokayata school embraced a materialistic worldview that eschewed the supernatural, contributing to the growing discourse on atheism. Phenomena that were once considered miracles or mysteries under the sole domain of the divine increasingly found rational explanations in the realms of physics, biology, and chemistry.

A critical theory that undermined religious creationist doctrine was Charles Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection. The overwhelming evidence for evolution, supported by fields like palaeontology, genetics, and comparative anatomy, suggested a naturalistic explanation for the diversity of life on Earth.

Furthermore, with the advancements in neuroscience uncovering the intricacies of the human brain, many fundamental principles of religious faith came into question. Pillars like religious determinism, which suggested that individuals could consciously choose between good and evil, faced intense scrutiny with the discovery of genes, neurotransmitters, hormones, and epigenetics. Consciousness was shown to have a biological basis that arose from complex brain processes. These findings challenged dualistic views of a non-physical soul and raised profound questions about the existence of a benevolent and omnipotent deity. The idea that biological and environmental factors could largely influence choices seemed at odds with the notion of free will, for if factors beyond personal control predetermined actions, how could a benevolent deity hold individuals accountable for their deeds?

Proponents of the "God gene" argue that specific brain regions, including the temporal lobes, might play a role in religious and mystical experiences. They suggest that the brain's activity in these regions could be responsible for the profound feelings of spirituality and connection to the divine reported by some individuals. Critics of religion have sometimes used this theory to argue that religious experiences are merely the result of neural processes, challenging the notion of divine intervention or the existence of a higher power.

Lastly, The Big Bang Theory provided a scientific explanation for the universe's origin, challenging creationist narratives. It proposed a naturalistic beginning to the cosmos, devoid of any necessity for divine intervention.

WHY DO RELIGIONS STILL EXIST?

Despite many advancements in philosophy and science, religion continues to flourish in many parts of the world. In some areas, it is not just surviving but rapidly expanding. The enduring presence of religious belief in the 21st century can be attributed to several compelling factors.

The endurance of religion, even amidst scientific advancements, can be partly explained by the nature of religious belief, particularly around the concept of God. The existence of God is an abstract idea that falls outside the realm of scientific falsifiability—meaning science cannot prove or disprove it. This quality allows faith in God to persist because God as an actual concept is not something that can be empirically tested or invalidated like early magical beliefs.

Even though science presents explanations for human existence, these are often unsettling or unsatisfactory for many. Concepts like nihilism suggest life might have no inherent meaning, and existentialism points to the often-absurd nature of human life. These ideas can lead to a feeling of emptiness or existential dread. In contrast, religion offers narratives that provide meaning, purpose, and the promise of an afterlife. It addresses a deep human need for significance and continuity beyond physical existence, which scientific explanations often lack. This need for meaning and fear of the existential void might be why humans seem naturally inclined toward spirituality, as theories like the 'God gene’ suggest.

BEYOND SCIENCE

Since the digital age, scientific and historical principles have increasingly been rejected. This shift can be attributed to several factors:

• Access to Information: With the advent of the internet and digital technologies, people have unprecedented access to information and diverse perspectives. While this has many benefits, it also means that individuals can encounter a wide range of ideas, some of which may challenge established scientific and historical narratives.

• Social Media and Echo Chambers: Social media platforms have allowed people to create and participate in echo chambers, where they primarily interact with others who share their beliefs and opinions. This can reinforce existing beliefs and discourage critical examination of information.

• Disinformation and Misinformation: The digital age has facilitated the rapid spread of disinformation and misinformation. False or misleading information can quickly gain traction online, leading to the rejection of established scientific facts and historical events.

• Polarization: Societal polarization, fueled by political and ideological divisions, has contributed to the rejection of scientific and historical truths. People may be more inclined to reject information that contradicts their beliefs or aligns with the views of their chosen group.

• Post-Truth Culture: In some contexts, there has been a growing acceptance of a "post-truth" culture, where emotions and personal beliefs carry more weight than objective facts. This trend can lead to dismissing scientific evidence and historical records favouring subjective interpretations.

• Distrust in Institutions: Distrust in traditional institutions, including government, media, and academia, has eroded confidence in their pronouncements. This can lead individuals to seek alternative sources of information and reject established narratives.

• Confirmation Bias: People tend to seek information that confirms their beliefs and filter out information that contradicts them. In the digital age, social media and search engine algorithms can inadvertently reinforce confirmation bias by presenting users with content that aligns with their preferences.

• Crisis of Authority: The digital age has created a crisis of authority, where anyone can become an "expert" or disseminate information without rigorous vetting. This challenges the traditional gatekeepers of knowledge.

CONCLUSIONS

Tracing humanity's philosophical journey from magic to religion to science, it's clear that we've always sought answers about our existence. From ancient animism to organized religions and scientific inquiry, we've strived to understand our place in the universe.

However, despite the challenges posed by science to religious beliefs, religion persists, reflecting our need for meaning and transcendence. While religion can provide comfort and community for many, it's also been a source of conflict, division, and stagnation throughout history. It's been associated with wars, bigotry, and the suppression of scientific inquiry.

In today's digital age, the internet has transformed how we access information and connect with others. Unfortunately, it has also enabled the spread of unfounded and unscientific beliefs. People can easily find online communities that reinforce their ideas, no matter how false or harmful they may be. This has led to a 'cancel culture,' where people quickly judge and punish others based on incomplete or biased information.

So, as we navigate this complex landscape, it's more important than ever to rely on science and reliable information. Science is our best tool for understanding the world and making informed decisions. It not only dispels beliefs based on religion and pseudoscience, such as gender ideology and critical race theory, but it also helps to debunk theories and ideas that are framed as scientific, such as the debunked ideas about the efficacy of antidepressants, which may even cause harm by altering brain chemistry. Science is essential for separating fact from fiction and ensuring our beliefs are grounded in evidence.

FROM MAGIC, RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY TO SCIENCE: A COMPREHENSIVE TIMELINE

This timeline presents a comprehensive view of the evolution of human belief systems, encompassing early spiritual beliefs, philosophical inquiries, religious doctrines, and the rise of scientific thinking.

100,000 - 50,000 Years Ago:

• Spiritual Essence in Nature: Belief in spiritual essence in objects, places, and creatures.

• Early Belief Systems: Ancestor worship, Animism, Totemism, Shamanism.

12,000 - 5,000 Years Ago:

• Development of Agriculture: Rise of villages and shared knowledge.

• Ritualistic Burial Practices: Communal tombs and ritual burials.

• Emergence of Civilizations: Egyptian civilization and earliest known writing.

• Shift in Worship: Transition from animal/spirit worship to worship of supreme beings, sky gods.

3,300 Years Ago:

• Overlap of Magic and Religion: No clear distinction between religious practices and magic.

• Western Monotheism: Emergence of Judaism (1312 BCE).

2,500 Years Ago:

• Greek Rationalism: Philosophical questioning of reality.

• Early Natural Philosophers: Thales, Heraclitus, Democritus – early critical thought.

• Emergence of Buddhism: Buddha's teachings challenging authority.

• Zoroastrianism: Influence on Abrahamic traditions, teachings of Zoroaster.

• Greek Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle; development of Western philosophy.

2,000 - 1,500 Years Ago:

• Rise of Christianity: Teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.

• Catholicism: Emergence of Catholicism (30 CE).

• Expansion of Major Religions: Hinduism, Paganism, Shintoism, Mythology.

• Yazdânism: Kurdish religious variants synthesizing Islam with ancient faiths.

1,400 Years Ago:

• Islam: Emergence of Islam (610 CE); Islamic Aristotelianism with philosophers like Averroes and Avicenna.

• Jainism: Emergence and spread of Jainism.

700 Years Ago:

• Acceptance of Biblical Creation: Widely accepted Biblical tale of Creation in Europe.

• Voodooism: Development and spread of Voodoo practices.

500 Years Ago:

• Medieval Age: Focus on Christian theology and remaining Greek philosophy.

• The Renaissance: Cultural, religious, political evolution; questioning of established beliefs.

• Church of England: Establishment of the Church of England (1534 CE).

400 Years Ago:

• Empiricism and Rationalism: Philosophers Locke, Berkeley, Hume, Descartes, and Spinoza.

• Scientific Advances: Contributions from Bacon, Galileo, and Hobbes.

• Methodist: Emergence of Methodism (1739 CE).

200 Years Ago:

• The Scientific Revolution: Fundamental shift in understanding the universe.

• The emergence of Modern Science: Breakaway from metaphysics, the establishment of empirical sciences.

• Mormonism (Latter-day Saint movement): Emergence of Mormonism (1830 CE).

150 Years Ago:

• Seventh Day Adventists: Emergence of Seventh Day Adventists (1863 CE).

• Jehovah Witnesses: Emergence of Jehovah Witnesses (1881 CE).

• Romanticism and Idealism: Artistic and intellectual movement emphasizing emotion.

• Darwin's Evolution Theory: Challenging religious doctrines, Darwin identifies as agnostic.

• Major Atheists: Prominent figures advocating atheism.

100-70 Years Ago:

• Karl Popper (1902-1994): Creator of falsification theory.

• Existentialism: Exploration of human existence and God by Kierkegaard, Dostoevsky, and Nietzsche.

• Logical Analysis: Emphasis on logic and evidence by philosophers like Frege, Russell, and Moore.

• Scientology (1954 CE).

• Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996).

20 Years Ago:

• Critique of Religion: Advocacy for scientific explanation by thinkers like Richard Dawkins and Christopher Hitchens.

• Nicholas Maxwell's Proposition: Calls for integrating philosophy and science into modern natural philosophy, focusing on rational thinking about existential questions.

Beyond Science:

• Simulation Theory: (2000 CE). The hypothesis that reality could be a sophisticated simulation represents a kind of modern myth-making or a philosophical hypothesis that stimulates thought about the nature of reality. This theory, like religion, offers a perspective that extends beyond the empirical world addressed by science, tapping into human fascination with the unknown and the possible existence of a higher order or intelligence.

• Gender ideology. Some individuals argue that gender ideology is metaphysical rather than scientific. They assert that it departs from traditional biological definitions of sex and introduces abstract concepts like gender identity that are not based on empirical evidence. From this viewpoint, gender ideology is seen as a departure from the scientific method, which relies on observable and measurable phenomena.

  Critics argue that the concept of gender identity, as distinct from biological sex, lacks a solid empirical foundation. They contend that it introduces subjective and metaphysical elements into discussions about human identity and behaviour. According to this perspective, gender ideology relies on belief systems and social constructs rather than objective, measurable data.

REFERENCES

• Murdock, G. P. (1932). The science of culture: A study of man and civilization. New York: McGraw-Hill.

• Boyer, P. (2001). Religion explained: The evolutionary origins of religious thought. Basic Books.

• Guthrie, S. E. (1993). Faces in the clouds: A new theory of religion. Oxford University Press.

• Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press.

• Hawking, S. (1988). A Brief History of Time. Bantam Books.

• Dennett, D. C. (2006). Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon. Viking.

• Lévi-Strauss, C. (1963). Structural Anthropology. Basic Books.

• Popper, K. R. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press. ISBN-13: 978-0226578069.

• Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1848). The Communist Manifesto. Verso. ISBN-13: 978-1844670865

• Pinker, S. (2002). The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. Penguin.

• Tylor, E. B. (1871). "Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom". John Murray.

• Dawkins, R. (2006). The God Delusion. Bantam Press. ISBN-13: 978-0593058251.

• Whitaker, R. (2002). Mad in America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally Ill. Basic Books.

• Joyce, H. (2021). Trans: When Ideology Meets Reality. Oneworld Publications.

• Hitchens, C. (2007). God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything. Twelve.

ATHEISTS AND AGNOSTICS

The concept of atheism, the lack of belief in gods or the denial of their existence, has a long history, but pinpointing the "first atheists" is challenging due to the evolution of religious and philosophical thought over millennia. However, some ancient figures and schools of thought are often cited as early examples of atheistic or non-theistic beliefs:

ANCIENT INDIAN PHILOSOPHY: In ancient India, several schools of thought questioned the existence of deities. For instance, the Carvaka or Lokayata school, dating back to around the 6th century BCE, is considered one of the earliest forms of explicit atheism. They rejected the supernatural, advocating for a materialistic view of the world.

CLASSICAL GREEK PHILOSOPHY: Several pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Democritus (c. 460 – c. 370 BCE), who proposed an early form of atomism, are sometimes considered atheistic or agnostic in their views. They did not necessarily deny the existence of gods but often depicted them as unconcerned with human affairs and proposed naturalistic explanations for phenomena traditionally attributed to divine intervention.

EPICUREANISM: Founded by Epicurus in the 3rd century BCE, this school of thought didn't explicitly deny the existence of gods but argued that they were not involved in human affairs. The focus was on seeking happiness through the pursuit of knowledge and avoidance of pain, emphasizing the material world.

DIAGORAS OF MELOS: Often referred to as the "first atheist," Diagoras (c. 5th century BCE) was a Greek poet and sophist. He is known for his scepticism towards religion and the existence of gods, although details about his life and beliefs are sparse and mainly known through later sources.

XENOPHANES OF COLOPHON: A pre-Socratic philosopher (c. 570 – c. 475 BCE), Xenophanes is noted for criticizing anthropomorphic depictions of gods and challenging traditional religious beliefs of his time

These early examples represent more a scepticism or critical approach to traditional theism than atheism in the modern sense. The term "atheist" itself, especially in ancient times, often had negative connotations and was sometimes used to describe people who rejected the traditional gods of their culture rather than denying the existence of any deities whatsoever.

The development of atheistic thought is intertwined with the broader history of religious and philosophical inquiry, and as such, the concept of atheism has evolved significantly over time.

FROM THE 17 CENTURY UNTIL THE PRESENT TIME

BARUCH SPINOZA (1632-1677): A Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Sephardi Jewish origin, Spinoza is often considered an early proponent of atheism or radical pantheism. His philosophical work, particularly "Ethics," challenged traditional religious views, proposing a God synonymous with nature and dismissing divine intervention. His ideas led to his excommunication from the Jewish community.

THOMAS HOBBES (1588-1679): Although not strictly an atheist, Hobbes, a materialist, laid the foundation for modern political philosophy in his work "Leviathan." He promoted a secular and naturalistic view of the world, advocating for a social contract theory based on reason rather than religious authority.

BARON D'HOLBACH (1723-1789): Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach, an 18th-century French philosopher and encyclopaedist, was known for his atheistic and materialistic views. He hosted a renowned salon in Paris for Enlightenment thinkers, becoming a pivotal figure in spreading atheist and freethinker ideologies.

DAVID HUME (1711-1776): Hume, a Scottish philosopher, is recognised for his sceptical approach to religion. His empiricist philosophy and critical analysis of religious claims, especially miracles, have had a significant impact on the philosophy of religion and agnostic thought.

JULIEN OFFRAY DE LA METTRIE (1709-1751): A French physician and philosopher, La Mettrie is known for his materialist and atheistic views. His controversial work "Man a Machine" argued for a mechanistic understanding of human nature, challenging the existence of a soul and traditional religious concepts.

THOMAS HUXLEY (1825-1895): Often referred to as "Darwin's Bulldog," Huxley was a prominent agnostic known for his defence of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. He advocated for scientific inquiry over religious belief, coining the term "agnostic" to describe his stance on the unknowability of spiritual matters.

CHARLES DARWIN (1809-1882): Famous for his theory of evolution by natural selection, Darwin's work had profound implications for religious beliefs about creation. While his scientific work challenged traditional religious views, Darwin himself did not explicitly identify as an atheist, preferring to describe himself as an agnostic, especially in his later years.

KARL MARX (1818-1883): Marx, a philosopher, economist, and revolutionary socialist, is known for his atheistic views. He considered religion to be "the opium of the people," a tool of oppression that reflects and perpetuates societal inequalities.

FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE (1844-1900): Nietzsche's philosophy included a radical critique of religion, particularly Christianity. His famous statement "God is dead" reflects his belief that traditional religious values had become irrelevant in the modern world.

SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939): The founder of psychoanalysis, Freud viewed religious belief as an illusion, a psychological mechanism to fulfil human emotional desires. He considered religion to be a collective neurosis.

BERTRAND RUSSELL (1872-1970): An influential British philosopher and logician, Russell advocated for atheism and rational inquiry. His essay "Why I Am Not a Christian" outlines his reasons for rejecting Christianity and other religions.

ALBERT EINSTEIN (1879-1955): Einstein's views on religion were complex; he did not believe in a personal God and often expressed agnostic views. He used the term "God" metaphorically, referring to the underlying order of the universe.

VICTOR J. STENGER (1935-2014): An American physicist and philosopher, Stenger was a vocal critic of religion and supernatural claims. His book "God: The Failed Hypothesis" argues that science disproves the existence of God.

CARL SAGAN (1934-1996): An American astronomer and science communicator, Sagan was known for his agnostic views. He promoted scientific scepticism and inquiry, emphasising the vast, unexplained mysteries of the universe.

STEPHEN HAWKING (January 8, 1942 – March 14, 2018): The renowned theoretical physicist, celebrated for his scientific contributions and known for his atheist views.

RICHARD DAWKINS (1941-Present): An evolutionary biologist, Dawkins is a leading figure in the New Atheism movement. His book "The God Delusion" critiques religion and argues against the existence of a deity.

DANIEL DENNETT (Born 1942): A philosopher and cognitive scientist, Dennett is one of the "Four Horsemen" of New Atheism. He views religion as a natural phenomenon that should be studied scientifically.

SAM HARRIS (Born 1967): As a neuroscientist and author, Harris is part of the "Four Horsemen" of New Atheism. He criticises religion and advocates for a secular, rational basis for morality.

CHRISTOPHER HITCHENS (1949-2011): A British-American author and journalist, Hitchens was known for his articulate atheism and criticism of religion, notably in his book "God Is Not Great."

MICHAEL SHERMER (Born 1954): Founder of The Skeptics Society, Shermer advocates for scientific scepticism and critiques religious and supernatural claims from a scientific viewpoint.

MICHEL ONFRAY (Born January 1, 1959): A French philosopher, Onfray advocates for atheism and hedonism. He's known for his writings on materialism and atheistic thought.

A.C. GRAYLING (Born 1949): A British philosopher and writer, Grayling is a proponent of humanism and secularism, often engaging in public discourse on religion and ethics.

JERRY COYNE (Born 1949): An American biologist, Coyne is known for his vocal atheism and critiques of creationism and intelligent design, advocating for the acceptance of evolutionary biology.

AYAAN HIRSI ALI (Born 1969): A Somali-born Dutch-American activist and former politician, Hirsi Ali is a critic of Islam and an advocate for atheism and women's rights.

NEIL DEGRASSE TYSON (Born 1958): An American astrophysicist and science communicator, Tyson describes himself as agnostic, emphasising the importance of scientific literacy and a secular worldview.

LAWRENCE KRAUSS (Born 1954): A theoretical physicist and cosmologist, Krauss advocates for atheism and scientific understanding, often discussing the incompatibility of science and religious dogma.

KATHARINE HAYHOE (Born 1972): A climate scientist, Hayhoe is an agnostic who emphasises the compatibility of science and faith, particularly in the context of environmental stewardship.

STEVEN PINKER (Born 1954): A cognitive psychologist and linguist, Pinker approaches human nature from an agnostic perspective, often discussing the intersection of science, reason, and humanism.

CELEBRITIES THAT DON’T BELIEVE IN GOD

Famous individuals who have identified as atheist or agnostic

CHARLIE CHAPLIN (April 16, 1889 – December 25, 1977): Actor and filmmaker, known for his agnostic views.

KATHARINE HEPBURN (May 12, 1907 – June 29, 2003): Legendary actress, known for her outspoken atheism.

CARL SAGAN (November 9, 1934 – December 20, 1996): Astronomer and cosmologist, identified as agnostic, promoting scientific scepticism and wonder.

BRUCE LEE (November 27, 1940 – July 20, 1973): Martial artist and actor, known for his philosophical views, including elements of agnosticism.

JOHN LENNON (October 9, 1940 – December 8, 1980): Musician and member of The Beatles, expressed atheistic views, especially in "Imagine."

KURT VONNEGUT (November 11, 1922 – April 11, 2007): American author known for his humanist and atheist beliefs.

WARREN BUFFETT (Born August 30, 1930): Investor, described himself as agnostic.

IAN MCKELLEN (Born May 25, 1939): Renowned British actor, identified as an atheist.

LAWRENCE KRAUSS (Born May 27, 1954): Theoretical physicist and cosmologist, advocate for atheism and scientific understanding.

JAMES CAMERON (Born August 16, 1954): Film director, known for his agnostic views.

NEIL PEART (September 12, 1952 – January 7, 2020): Drummer for Rush, expressed agnostic and atheist views.

BILLY JOEL (Born May 9, 1949): American singer-songwriter, identified as an atheist.

BILL GATES (Born October 28, 1955): Co-founder of Microsoft, Gates has described himself as agnostic when it comes to discussing religious beliefs

PENN JILLETTE (Born 1955): An American magician and author, Jillette is a vocal atheist, often discussing his views on religion and scepticism.

BILL MAHER (Born 1956): An American comedian and political commentator, Maher is known for his satirical critique of religion and identifies as agnostic.

STEPHEN FRY (Born 1957): An English actor and writer, Fry advocates for humanism and atheism, often addressing religious themes in his work.

JULIA SWEENEY (Born October 10, 1959): Comedian and actress, known for her one-woman show "Letting Go of God."

HUGH LAURIE (Born June 11, 1959): British actor, known for his atheist views.

SETH MACFARLANE (Born October 26, 1973): Creator of "Family Guy," spoken about his atheism.

KATHY GRIFFIN (Born November 4, 1960): Comedian and actress, self-proclaimed atheist.

GEORGE CLOONEY (Born May 6, 1961): Actor and director, expressed agnostic leanings.

RICKY GERVAIS (Born June 25, 1961): Comedian and actor, recognised for his outspoken atheism.

JODIE FOSTER (Born November 19, 1962): Actress and director, expressed agnostic beliefs.

BRAD PITT (Born December 18, 1963): Actor oscillating between atheism and agnosticism.

ANGELINA JOLIE (Born June 4, 1975): Actress and filmmaker, described herself as agnostic.

UMA THURMAN (Born April 29, 1970): Actress, known for her agnostic beliefs.

JULIAN ASSANGE (Born July 3, 1971): WikiLeaks founder, described himself as an atheist.

LANCE ARMSTRONG (Born September 18, 1971): Former professional cyclist, identified as an atheist.

JOAQUIN PHOENIX (Born October 28, 1974): Actor, described his religious views as agnostic.

BJÖRK (Born November 21, 1965): Icelandic singer-songwriter, known for her atheist views.

NATALIE PORTMAN (Born June 9, 1981): Academy Award-winning actress, expressed agnostic views.

MARK ZUCKERBERG (Born May 14, 1984): Facebook founder, raised Jewish, described himself as an atheist but recently reconsidering.

ZAC EFRON (Born October 18, 1987): American actor, described himself as agnostic.

KEIRA KNIGHTLEY (Born March 26, 1985): Actress who spoke openly about her atheism.

DANIEL RADCLIFFE (Born July 23, 1989): Actor, identified as an atheist